human nature and power

• Human Nature: Optimistic Liberalism vs. Pessimistic Realism

  • Liberals (inspired by Locke) view human nature as cooperative and capable of progress. They argue that people are rational and can build societies to achieve mutual interests and rights. Human nature is seen as positive, not inevitably violent.
  • Stephen Pinker – “the better angels of our nature.” The EU – built on liberal cooperation, pooling sovereignty for peace and prosperity.
  • Realists, following Hobbes, believe humans are inherently selfish and power-hungry. In international relations, this translates to a state of anarchy where states act in their own interest to survive.
  • Thomas Hobbes – “state of nature” is a “war of all against all.”
  • Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022–) shows how, from a realist lens, states act aggressively to secure influence and survival.
• The Nature and Role of Power: Hard Power vs. Soft Power

  • Realists view power in absolute, military terms. Survival is the goal, and military strength (especially of Great Powers) determines international relations.
  • John Mearsheimer – states must pursue hegemony to be safe.
  • China’s military build-up in the South China Sea, aiming to dominate the region and deter U.S. influence – a realist move for power projection.
  • Liberals argue that power can be shared and exercised through diplomacy, law, and soft power. They stress international institutions and cooperation.
  • Joseph Nye – coined “soft power”, the ability to influence without force.
  • U.S. cultural influence (Hollywood, education, tech) and Biden’s focus on multilateral diplomacy in NATO and the Paris Climate Agreement.
• Global Order and Governance: Competition vs. Cooperation

  • Realists believe international relations are a struggle between Great Powers, and peace is temporary. States can't trust each other because the world is dangerous and uncertain.
  • Balance of power – avoids war by deterring dominance.
  •  India’s nuclear build-up in response to China’s rise – a classic case of balance of power politics.
  • Liberals, by contrast, argue that international institutions like the UN, WTO, and international law can tame anarchy and encourage peaceful cooperation.
  • John Ikenberry – “liberal leviathan” (U.S.-led order based on rules and norms).
  • International Criminal Court and World Health Organization cooperation during COVID-19 highlight how liberal values can shape global governance.