PAPER 2

• HOW TO CONVERT ALKANES INTO HALOALKANES?

  Halogen

  UV light

  Free radical substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT HALOALKANES INTO PRIMARY AMINES?

  Concentrated NH3 in ethanol

  Heat

  Under pressure (sealed tube)

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT PRIMARY AMINES INTO ALKYL AMMONIUM SALTS?

  Dilute HCl

  Room temperature

  Acid-base reaction
• HOW TO CONVERT PRIMARY AMINES INTO SECONDARY AMINES?

  Halogenoalkane

  Heat

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT SECONDARY AMINES INTO TERTIARY AMINES?

  Halogenoalkane

  Heat

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT TERTIARY AMINES INTO QUATERNARY AMMONIUM SALTS?

  Halogenoalkane

  Heat

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT HALOALKANES INTO ALKENES?

  Concentrated KOH in ethanol (alcoholic)

  Heat

  Elimination
• HOW TO CONVERT ALKENES INTO HALOALKANES?

  Hydrogen halide

  Room temperature

  Electrophilic addition
• HOW TO CONVERT HALOALKANES INTO NITRILES?

  KCN in aqueous ethanol (ethanolic solution)

  Boil under reflux

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT HALOALKANES INTO ALCOHOLS?

  NaOH (aq)

  Heat under reflux

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT ALKENES INTO DIHALOALKANES?

  Halogen in water or organic solvent

  Room temperature

  Electrophilic addition
• HOW TO CONVERT DIHALOALKANES INTO DIOLS?

  NaOH (aq)

  Heat under reflux

  Nucleophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT ALKENES INTO ALKYLHYDROGENSULPHATES?

  Concentrated H2SO4

  Cold

  Electrophilic addition
• HOW TO CONVERT ALKENES INTO ALCOHOLS?

  Steam

  300 degrees Celsius

  60 atm

  H3PO4 catalyst

  Electrophilic addition/ hydration
• HOW TO CONVERT ALCOHOLS INTO ALKENES?

  Concentrated H2SO4

  Heat under reflux

  Elimination/ dehydration
• HOW TO CONVERT ALCOHOLS INTO ALDEHYDES?

  K2Cr2O7/H2SO4

  Warm

  Distillation

  Oxidation
• HOW TO CONVERT ALDEHYDES INTO ALCOHOLS?

  NaBH4 (aq)

  Heat

  Reduction
• HOW TO CONVERT ALCOHOLS INTO KETONES?

  K2Cr2O7/H2SO4

  Warm

  Distillation

  Oxidation
• HOW TO CONVERT KETONES INTO ALCOHOLS?

  NaBH4 (aq)

  Heat

  Reduction
• HOW TO CONVERT NITRILES INTO CARBOXYLIC ACIDS?

  Dilute HCl

  Heat

  Hydrolysis
• HOW TO CONVERT ALDEHYDES INTO CARBOXYLIC ACIDS?

  K2Cr2O7/H2SO4

  Heat under reflux

  Oxidation
• HOW TO CONVERT CARBOXYLIC ACIDS INTO ALDEHYDES?

  LiAlH4 in dry ether

  Heat

  Reduction
• HOW TO CONVERT CARBOXYLIC ACIDS INTO CARBOXYLATE SALTS?

  NaOH (aq)

  Room temperature

  Acid-base reaction
• HOW TO CONVERT CARBOXYLIC ACIDS INTO ESTERS?

  Alcohol

  Concentrated H2SO4

  Heat

  Esterification/ condensation
• HOW TO CONVERT ACYL CHLORIDES INTO ESTERS?

  Alcohol

  Room temperature

  Nucleophilic addition-elimination/ acylation
• HOW TO CONVERT ACYL CHLORIDES INTO CARBOXYLIC ACIDS?

  H2O

  Room temperature

  Hydrolysis
• HOW TO CONVERT GLUCOSE INTO ETHANOL?

  Yeast

  35 - 55 degrees Celsius

  No air

  Fermentation
• HOW TO CONVERT BENZENE INTO BENZALDEHYDE?

  Ethanoyl chloride

  Heat

  Electrophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT BENZENE INTO METHYLBENZENE/ TOLUENE?

  Chloromethane

  AlCl3

  Heat

  Electrophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT BENZENE INTO NITROBENZENE?

  Concentrated HNO3 and concentrated H2SO4

  25 - 60 degrees Celsius

  Electrophilic substitution
• HOW TO CONVERT NITROBENZENE INTO AMINOBENZENE?

  Concentrated HCl and Sn

  Heat

  Reduction
• HOW TO CONVERT METHYLBENZENE/ TOLUENE INTO CHLOROMETHYLBENZENE?

  Chlorine

  UV

  Free radical substitution
• FACTORS AFFECTING Kc?

  • temperature
  • not concentration
  • not catalysts
  • not pressure
• FINDING ORDER FROM GRAPHS?

  1. Plot concentration (y-axis) against time (x-axis)
  2. Calculate gradient of tangent
  3. Plot rate (y-axis) against concentration (x-axis)
  4. Horizontal straight line = zero order
  5. Sloping straight line through origin = first order
  6. Curve = order greater than one
• FACTORS AFFECTING k?

  • temperature (more molecules have E > Ea)
  • not concentration
  • not pressure
• ACTIVATION ENERGY?

  minimum energy required for reactant particles to successfully collide and form products in chemical reaction
• RATE OF REACTION

  change in concentration of reactant/ product per unit of time
• ORDER OF REACTION?

  power to which the concentration of one species is raised in rate equation
• RATE CONSTANT?

  proportionality factor in rate equation linking the rate of reaction to the concentration of the reactants
• CONCENTRATION-TIME GRAPHS?

  • ZERO ORDER: straight line downwards (concentration of reactant is inversely proportional to time)
  • FIRST ORDER: curve downwards, eventually plateaus (concentration of reactant decreases with time)
  • SECOND ORDER: steeper curve downwards, eventually plateaus (concentration of reactant decreases more with time)