Year 2

• Different ways a psychologist can research the mind

  • Experiments
  • Observation
  • Self-reporting
  • Case studies
• Experimental method


  • Looks at how variables affect outcomes
  • A variable is anything that changes between two situations
• Experimental designs


  • Independent groups
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
• Types of experiment


  • Laboratory experiment
  • Field experiment
• Natural and quasi experiments

  • Natural experiment
  • Quasi experiment
• Observational method


  • Looks at and examines behaviour
• Observational design


  • Behavioural categories
  • Event sampling
  • Time sampling
• Types of observation


  • Naturalistic
  • Controlled
  • Covert
  • Overt
  • Participant
  • Non-participant
• Self-report method


  • Gets participants to provide information about themselves via questionnaires or interviews
• Types of self-report


  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
• Case studies


  • Detailed investigations into an individual, a group of people, or an event
  • Use observation, questionnaires, interviews to gather data
  • Data is primarily qualitative rather than quantitative
• Types of case study

  • Typical
  • Unusual
  • Longitudinal
• Aim


  • A description of what the researchers are investigating and why
• Hypotheses


  • Experimental/Alternate hypothesis
  • Null hypothesis
• Sampling


  • Population
  • Sample
• Sampling techniques


  • Random sampling
  • Systematic sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Opportunity sampling
  • Volunteer sampling
• Variables


  • Independent variable
  • Dependent variable
  • Extraneous variables
  • Confounding variables
  • Operationalisation of variables
• Pilot studies


  • Practice run of the proposed research project to identify any problems or areas for improvement
• Features of a psychological report

  • Title
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Method
  • Results
  • Discussion
• The study was designed (e.g. independent groups or repeated measures), and identification and operationalisation of variables
• Participants: A description of the target population to be studied, the sampling method, how many participants were included
• Equipment used: A description of any special equipment used in the study and how it was used
• Standardised procedure: A detailed step-by-step description of how the study was conducted. This allows for the study to be replicated by other researchers
• Controls: An explanation of how extraneous variables were controlled for so as to generate accurate results
• Results: A presentation of the key findings from the data collected. This is typically written summaries of the raw data (descriptive statistics), which may also be presented in tables, charts, graphs, etc. The raw data itself is typically included in appendices
• Discussion: An explanation of what the results mean and how they relate to the experimental hypothesis (supporting or contradicting it), any issues with how results were generated, how the results fit with other research, and suggestions for future research
• Conclusion: A short summary of the key findings from the study
• References: A list of all the sources – i.e. books and published articles – used in the study. These are listed according to standard formats, e.g. the Harvard referencing style
• Appendices: This is where you put any supporting materials that are too detailed or long to include in the main report. For example, the raw data collected from a study, or the complete list of questions in a questionnaire
• Peer review


  A way of assessing the scientific credibility of a research paper before it is published in a scientific journal. The idea with peer review is to prevent false ideas and bad research from being accepted as fact
• Methods of peer review

  • Open review
  • Single-blind
  • Double-blind
• In psychological studies, ethical issues are questions of what is morally right and wrong. An ethically-conducted study will protect the health and safety of the participants involved and uphold their dignity, privacy, and rights
• Ethical principles in the British Psychological Association's code of human research ethics


  • Valid consent
  • No deception
  • Confidentiality
  • Debriefing
• Reliability


  Study results are reliable if the same results can be consistently replicated under the same circumstances. If results are inconsistent then the study is unreliable
• Ways to assess reliability

  • Test-retest
  • Inter-observer
• Validity


  Study results are valid if they accurately measure what they are supposed to
• Types of validity


  • Concurrent validity
  • Face validity
  • Ecological validity
  • Temporal validity
• There are several different types of extraneous variables that can reduce the validity of a study. A well-conducted psychological study will control for these extraneous variables so that they do not skew the results
• Types of extraneous variables

  • Demand characteristics
  • Investigator effects
  • Participant variables
  • Situational variables
  • Task order
• Psychological research often has practical applications in real life. The following are some examples of how psychological findings may affect the economy