Inheritance, Variation, and Evolution

• Meiosis


  The formation of four non-identical cells from one cell
• Mitosis


  The formation of two identical cells from one cell
• Sexual reproduction


  1. Joining of male and female gametes, each containing genetic information from the mother or father

  2. Sperm and egg cells in animals

  3. Pollen and egg cells in flowering plants
• Gametes are formed by meiosis, as they are non identical
• Normal cell


  Has 46 chromosomes, two sets of 23 chromosomes (one from each parent)
• Gamete


  Has 23 chromosomes, fuses in fertilisation
• The genetic information from each parent is mixed, producing variation in the offspring
• Asexual reproduction


  1. One parent with no gametes joining

  2. Happens using the process of mitosis, where two identical cells are formed from one cell

  3. No mixing of genetic information

  4. Leads to clones, which are genetically identical to each other and the parent
• Meiosis


  The formation of four non-identical cells from one cell. Cells in the reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes. Gametes only have one copy of each chromosome.
• Meiosis


  1. Cell makes copies of its chromosomes, so it has double the amount of genetic information

  2. Cell divides into two cells, each with half the amount of chromosomes (46)

  3. Cell divides again producing four cells, each with a quarter the amount of chromosomes (23)

  4. These cells are called gametes and they are all genetically different from each other because the chromosomes are shuffled during the process, resulting in random chromosomes ending up in each of the four cells
• Gametes with 23 chromosomes join at fertilisation to produce a cell with 46 chromosomes, the normal number
• After fertilisation


  1. Cell divides by mitosis to produce many copies

  2. More and more cells are produced, and an embryo forms

  3. The cells begin to take on different roles after this stage (differentiation)
• Advantages of sexual reproduction

  • Produces variation in offspring
  • Allows for selective breeding
• Advantages of asexual reproduction

  • Only one parent is needed
  • Uses less energy and is faster as organisms do not need to find a mate
  • In favorable conditions lots of identical offspring can be produced
• Organisms that use both sexual and asexual reproduction

  • Malarial parasites
  • Some fungi
  • Some plants
• DNA


  The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell, composed of a chemical called DNA
• DNA structure


  • A polymer made up of two strands which wrap around each other like a rope - in a structure called a double helix
  • Contains four nitrogenous bases lined up in single rows that form complementary pairs
• Gene


  A small section of DNA on a chromosome - a triplet of bases that codes for a specific protein
• Genome


  All the genes coding for all of the proteins within an organism
• The whole human genome has now been studied and this has improved our understanding of the genes linked to different types of disease, the treatment of inherited disorders and has helped in tracing human migration patterns from the past
• DNA


  • A polymer that contains instructions for the body
  • Made up of many small parts called nucleotides, each containing a sugar molecule, a phosphate molecule and one of four organic bases (A, C, G, T)
  • Two DNA strands twisted together, with complementary base pairing (A-T, C-G)
  • The order of bases forms a code that determines the amino acids and proteins produced
• Protein synthesis


  1. DNA contains the genetic code, but it cannot move out of the nucleus

  2. The two DNA strands pull apart and mRNA nucleotides match to their complementary base on the strand, creating an mRNA strand

  3. The mRNA moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm and onto ribosomes

  4. At the ribosomes, the bases on the mRNA are read in threes to code for an amino acid

  5. Corresponding amino acids are brought to the ribosomes by carrier molecules and connected to form a protein

  6. The protein folds to form a unique 3D structure
• Protein functions


  • Enzymes - biological catalysts that speed up the rate of reaction
  • Hormones - chemical messengers that send signals around the body
  • Structural proteins - strong proteins that form structures
• Mutations


  • Changes in the sequences of bases in DNA, either by insertion, deletion or substitution
  • Can change the amino acid sequence and affect the protein structure and function
• Most mutations do not alter the protein or only do so slightly, but some can have a serious effect
• Variation between organisms arises from both the coding DNA that determines proteins and the non-coding DNA that determines gene expression
• Gamete


  An organism's reproductive cell (egg in female and sperm in males), which has half the number of chromosomes (23)
• Chromosome


  A structure found in the nucleus which is made up of a long strand of DNA
• Gene


  A short section of DNA that codes for a protein, and therefore contributes to a characteristic
• Alleles


  The different forms of the gene - humans have two alleles for each gene as they inherit one from each parent
• Dominant allele


  Only one (out of the two alleles) is needed for it to be expressed and for the corresponding phenotype to be observed
• Recessive allele


  Two copies are needed for it to be expressed and for the corresponding the phenotype to be observed
• Homozygous


  When both inherited alleles are the same (i.e. two dominant alleles or two recessive alleles)
• Heterozygous


  When one of the inherited alleles is dominant and the other is recessive
• Genotype


  The combination of alleles an individual has, e.g. Aa
• Phenotype


  The physical characteristics that are observed in the individual, e.g. eye colour
• Family trees show the inheritance of different phenotypes over generations in the same family
• A single gene cross looks at the probability of the offspring of two parents having certain genotypes and phenotypes, using a Punnett square diagram
• Single gene cross


  1. Look at the probability of the offspring of two parents having certain genotypes and phenotypes

  2. Use the alleles the two parents have for a gene and a Punnett square diagram

  3. Be able to draw and use a Punnett square diagram
• Uppercase letters


  Represent dominant characteristics