Sociology - Family Diversity

• Perspectives like functionalism and new right have been described as modernist. They see modern society as having a fixed and predictable structure and see the nuclear family as the best family type as it helps perform all essential functions
• Parsons argues that there is a functional fit between the nuclear family and modern society. He sees the nuclear family as suited to meeting the needs of modern society for a geographically and socially mobile workforce whilst also performing functions like primary socialisation of children and stabilisation of adult personalities. These contribute to the stability of society
• Other family types are considered as dysfunctional and abnormal since they are less able to perform the functions required of the family
• The new right have a conservative, anti feminist perspective of the family,opposing family diversity. They believe that there is only one correct family type which is the traditional patriarchal nuclear family consisting of a married couple and their dependent children with a clear division of labour between the breadwinner husband and the homemaker wife
• The new right believe that this family is natural and based on biological difference between men and women. They believe that this family is the cornerstone of society and a place of contentment and harmony
• The new right oppose changes in family patterns such as cohabitation and same sex marriage and argue that the decline in the traditional nuclear family and rise of family diversity causes many social problems. They believe that lone parent families are harmful for children as they argue that mothers can't discipline their children properly and these families leave young boys without a male role model, resulting in education failure and delinquency
• They claim that the main cause of lone parent families is the breakdown of relationships between cohabiting couples. In his study, Benson found that over the first three years of the baby's life, the rate of family breakdown was much higher among cohabiting couples - 20% compared to married couples - 6%. They therefore believe that only marriage can provide a stable environment in which to bring up children
• Benson argues that couples are more stable when they are married, for example the rate of divorce among married couples is lower than the rate of breakups in cohabiting couples.

  Therefore new right sociologists argue that only a return to traditional values, including the value of marriage can prevent damage to children and believe that laws and policies such as easy access to divorce,same sex marriage etc. undermine the conventional family.
• • Feminists like Oakley argue that the New Right wrongly assume that husbands and wives' roles are fixed by biology. Cross cultural studies show great variation in roles men and women perform within the family. They also argue that the conventional family is based on patriarchal oppression of women and is the cause of gender inequality, keeping women financially dependent on men.
  • there is no evidence that children in lone parent families are more likely to be delinquent than those brought up in a two parent family
• the rate of cohabitation is higher among poorer social groups. Smart argues that it may be poverty that causes the breakdown of relationships rather than the decision not to marry
• Chester: the neo-conventional family

  He recognised that there has been an increase in family diversity, however doesn't regard it as significant or see it in a negative light. He argues that the only important change is a move from the traditional nuclear family to the neo-conventional family
• The neo conventional family is a dual earner family in which both spouses go out to work which is similar to the symmetrical family described by Young and Willmott.

  He argues that there is no evidence for major change and that most people are not choosing alternative to the nuclear family.
• He argues that statisitcs on household composiiton are misleading because they are a snapshot of a single moment of time, people who are currently living in one person households like the elderly or divorced men were at some point part of a nuclear family. Statistics don't show us that most people spend most of their lives in a nuclear family
• Chester identified a number of patterns to show that little has changed, for example: Most adults marry and have children and most children are brought up by their two natural parents. Although cohabitation has increased, it is a temporary phase for most couples, before choosing to marry or remarry

  Therefore Chester argues that the importance of family diversity has been exaggerated and so sees the nuclear family as dominant.
• The Rapoports: five types of family diversity

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  They argue that diversity is central to understanding British families today

  They believe that we have moved away from the nuclear family being the dominant family type, arguing that there is now a range of different types
• Families have adapted to a pluralistic society, where cultures and lifestyles are more diverse. This reflects greater freedom of choice and acceptance of different cultures.
• Types of family diversity in Britain today

  • Organisational diversity
  • Cultural diversity
  • Social class diversity
  • Life stage diversity
  • Generational diversity
• Organisational diversity

  Differences in the ways family roles are organised i.e. joint conjugal roles vs segregated conjugal roles
• Cultural diversity

  Different cultural and ethnic groups have different structures. E.g. there is a higher proportion of extended families among Asian households
• Social class diversity

  Differences in family structure can be the result of income differences. There are also class differences in child rearing practices
• Life stage diversity

  Family structure differs according to the stage reached in the life cycle
• Generational diversity

  Older and younger generations have different attitudes that reflect the historical periods they have lived in. E.g. differences in attitude to divorce and cohabitation
• Post modernism and family diversity

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  They believe that we no longer live in a modern society with predictable and orderly structures. They argue that society has entered a postmodern stage.
• There is no longer one single dominant and stable family structure and instead family structures have become fragmented into lots of different types meaning individuals have more choice in their lifestyles and family arrangements
• Although this gives individuals greater choice and freedom to create their own life and choose the type of family that meets their needs, the greater freedom means that there is a greater risk of instability as relationships ar emore likely to break up
• Stacey argues that the greater freedom and choice has benefited women as it's enabled to them to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and has allowed them to shape family arrangements to meet their needs
• Stacey used life history interviews to construct a series of case studies of postmodern families. She found that women rather than men have been the main agents of changes in the family.

  Many women interviewed had rejected the traditional housewife role and had worked and returned to eduction as adults. These women created new types of family that was better suited for their needs
• Stacey called one of these new family structures the divorce extended family whose members are connected by divorce rather than marriage. This illustrates that postmodern families are diverse and that their shape depends on the active choices people make about how to live their lives
• The individualisation thesis

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  Giddens and Beck explore the effects of increasing individual choice upon families and relationships. The individualisation thesis argues that traditional social structures like class,gender and family have lost much of their influence over us. In the past people's lives were defined by fixed roles, preventing them from choosing their own life course. E.g. everyone was expected to marry and take up the appropriate gender role

  Individuals in today's society have fewer fixed roles to follow
• The individualisation thesis argues that we have become freed from traditional roles an structures, leaving us with more freedom.

  Beck argues that the 'standard biography' that people followed in the past has been replaced by the 'do it yourself' biography
• GIDDENS: CHOICE AND EQUALITY

  In recent decades the family in recent decade have been transformed by greater choice and equal relationships.

  • contraception has allowed sex and intimacy rather than reproduction to become the main reason for a relationships existence
  • women have gained independence as a result of feminism due to greater opportunities in education and work
• Gidden argues that in the past traditional family relationships were held together by external forces like laws govering the marriage contract and by norms against divorce. By contrast, today couples are free to define their relationship themselves rather than acting out roles that have been defined by tradition.
• The pure relationship : Giddens

  Relationships are no longer held together by law or social norms and are now based on individual choice and equality. Relationships are no longer bound to traditional norms. It exists solely to satisfy each partner's needs so the relationship survives as long as both partners think that it is in their own interest to do so. Couples stay together because of love,happiness and sexual attraction rather than due to tradition or a sense of duty
• Individuals are free to enter and leave relationships as they wish. Relationships therefore become part of the individuals self discovery and self identity
• Giddens believes that with more choice, relationships become less stable. the pure relationship can be ended at any point meaning it isn't a permanent commitment. This produces more lone parent families,step families etc.
• Giddens sees same sex relationships as leading the way towards new family types and creating more equal relationships. This is because same sex couples are not influenced by tradition to the extent that heterosexual couples are. They have therefore been able to develop relationships based on choice rather than traditional roles
• This has allowed same sex couples to negotiate relationships and create family structures that serve their own needs rather than conforming to pre exisitng norms
• BECK: THE NEGOTIATED FAMILY

  Beck argues that we live in a risk society, where tradition has less influence and people have more choice. This contrasts with earlier times where people's roles were fixed by traditions and social norms. For example, people in the past were expected to marry and men were expected to take on the breadwinner role whilst women were housewives. Although this was unequal, it provided a very stable and predictable basis of family life
• The patriarchal family has been undermined by two trends:

  • greater gender equality which has challenged male domination and women now expect equality both at work and at home
  • greater individualism where people's actions are influenced by their own self interest than by a sense of obligation to others
• These trends have led to what Beck calls the negotiated family. These families do not conform to the traditional family norm but vary according to wishes and expectations of their members who decide what is best for themselves.