Psychopathology

• Psychopathology


  The study of abnormal thought, behaviours, and feelings
• Definitions of abnormality

  • Statistical infrequencies
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
  • Failure to function adequately
• Statistical infrequencies


  Abnormal behaviours are those that are extremely rare and are found in very few people. Normal behaviours are, therefore, those found in the majority of people
• Deviation from social norms


  Anyone who deviates from socially created norms (or standard of acceptable behaviour) is considered abnormal. Some social norms are implicit, others are enforced by law
• Limitations of statistical infrequencies definition

  • Doesn’t distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviours
  • Cut off points are subjectively determined
• Limitations of deviation from social norms definition

  • Social norms vary over time so may lack temporal validity
  • Deviance is related to the context of the behaviour
• Limitation of both statistical infrequencies definition and deviation from social norms definition


  Culturally biased as based on Western classification systems, like DSM
• Deviation form ideal mental health


  Abnormality is the absence of ideal mental health criteria proposed by Jahoda
• Jahoda’s criteria of ideal mental health

  • good self-image
  • drive to realise self-potential
  • ability to cope with stress
  • being independent (autonomous)
  • having an accurate perception of reality
  • being able to adapt to changes in the environement
• Failure to function adequately 


  Being unable to cope with everyday life. Can cause distress for the person as well as for others
• Limitations of failure to function adequately definition

  • Some abnormal behaviours can be functional
  • Someone needs to decide whether the behaviour is abnormal
• Limitations of deviation from ideal mental health definition

  • Unrealistic criteria
  • Suggests that mental health is like physical health
• Limitations of deviation from ideal mental health

  • Unrealistic criteria
  • Suggests that mental health is the same as physical health
• Biological approach to OCD


  Divided into genetic explanations and neural explanations
• Genetic explanations of OCD

  • Suggest OCD is inherited and individuals inherit specific genes that code for OCD
  • Focus on identifying particular genes like COMT gene and SERT gene that have been linked to OCD
• COMT gene


  Regulates dopamine, high dopamine levels can trigger OCD
• SERT gene


  Regulates serotonin, low serotonin can cause OCD
• OCD is too complex to be caused by a single gene, it is likely that each individual gene that is not working properly contributes a vulnerability (a diathesis) and then other factors (stressors) affect what conditions develop
• Neural explanations


  • Suggest particular regions of the brain, particularly the orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia, are implicated in OCD
  • Patients who suffer from brain damage in the basal ganglia can develop OCD-like symptoms. Patients with OCD have higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex
• Orbitofrontal cortex


  A brain region that converts sensory information into thoughts and actions, heightened activity in this region may result in compulsions
• PET scans have found higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in patients with OCD, this heightened activity may increase the conversion of sensory information to behaviours which results in compulsions
• The increased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex also prevents patients from stopping their behaviours
• Strengths of the biological explanation


  • Family studies have found a genetic link, with 37% of patients with OCD having parents with OCD and 21% having siblings with OCD
  • Twin studies have found a very strong genetic component, with 68% of identical twins and 31% of non-identical twins experiencing OCD
• The biological explanation is supported by brain imaging studies which have found reduced grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal cortex of OCD patients and their close relatives
• Weaknesses of the biological explanation


  • It is reductionist and ignores other factors like cognitions and learning
  • OCD may develop through classical conditioning where a stimulus (e.g. dirt) is associated with anxiety, and this association is maintained through operant conditioning where the person continually washes their hands to avoid the anxiety
• Biological approach to OCD


  • Genetic explanations
  • Neural explanations
• Genetic explanations

  • Suggest OCD is inherited
  • Individuals inherit specific genes which cause OCD
• Genetic explanations


  • Focused on COMT gene which regulates dopamine
  • SERT gene which affects serotonin levels
• High dopamine levels


  Can trigger OCD
• Diathesis-Stress model of OCD


  • OCD is too complex to be caused by one gene
  • Each gene provides a vulnerability (diathesis)
  • Other factors (stressors) then develop OCD
• Neural explanations


  • Particular brain regions implicated in OCD, including orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia
  • Basal ganglia involved in coordination of movement
  • Brain injuries in this region can lead to OCD-like symptoms
• Orbitofrontal cortex


  • Converts sensory information into thoughts and actions
  • Higher activity in OCD patients may increase conversion to compulsive behaviours
• PET scans show heightened activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in OCD patients
• Biological treatments for OCD


  • SSRI antidepressants increase serotonin levels
  • Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety drugs) enhance GABA to slow brain activity
• Serotonin


  A neurotransmitter in the brain
• How SSRI antidepressants work

  1. Serotonin is released from the pre-synaptic cell into the synapse

  2. It travels to the receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron

  3. Serotonin that is not absorbed into the post-synaptic neuron is reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron

  4. SSRIs prevents it from being reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron, which increases the amount of serotonin available in the synapse and results in more serotonin being received by the post-synaptic neuron
• SSRI antidepressants


  • Increase the availability of serotonin in the synapse
• SSRI antidepressants


  Improve mood, reduce anxiety and OCD symptoms in patients
• Benzodiazepines


  Anti-anxiety drugs like Valium and Diazepam
• GABA


  A neurotransmitter that tells neurons to slow down and stop firing