Sociological theories of criminality

• Sociological theories


  Theories that explain crime and deviance from a sociological perspective
• Sociological theories of criminality

  • Functionalist theories
  • Interactionism
  • Marxist theories
  • Right realism
  • Left realism & Surveillance theories
• Functionalist theories believe that crime is normal and an integral part of all healthy societies
• Durkheim's strain theory


  Crime is a result of 'anomie' (normlessness) where shared norms become weakened, leading some individuals to deviate from societal norms
• Merton's strain theory


  Crime is a result of a 'strain' between society's goals of material success and the lack of legitimate means for everyone to achieve those goals, leading some to resort to illegitimate means
• Interactionism


  Sees crime and deviance as social constructs, where certain actions become labelled as criminal through social interactions and the application of labels
• Labelling theory


  Argues that labelling someone as a 'criminal' can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, leading to further deviance
• Marxist theories


  See crime as an inevitable result of the unequal capitalist system, where the law and criminal justice system serve to maintain the power of the ruling class
• Marxists argue that capitalism causes crime through exploitation, inequality, and the promotion of greed
• Marxists see the law and its enforcement as biased towards protecting the interests of the ruling capitalist class
• Marxists argue that ideas about crime and the law serve an ideological function to conceal the inequality of capitalist society
• Marxists argue that ideas about crime and the law are simply an ideology – a set of ideas that conceal the inequality of capitalist society
• Selective enforcement


  Makes it look as if crime is the fault of the working class, dividing the working class and encouraging people to blame working class criminals rather than capitalism
• Selective enforcement shifts attention away from much more serious ruling-class crime
• Some laws do benefit workers to a limited extent, e.g. health and safety laws
• These ideas encourage the working class to accept capitalism instead of replacing it with a more equal society
• Crimes to consider


  1. A woman steals a loaf of bread from her local supermarket because she has no money

  2. A young man sells drugs so that he can afford a new pair of trainers

  3. A gang of youths graffiti a local train station because they are bored

  4. A company fails to protect its workers because the safety equipment is too expensive and a worker is killed
• Marxist theory


  • It shows how poverty and inequality can cause working class crime, and how capitalism promotes greed and encourages upper-class crime
  • It shows how both law-making and law enforcement are biased against the working class and in favour of the powerful
• Weaknesses of Marxist theory

  • It focuses on class and largely ignores the relationship between crime and other inequalities (gender/ethnicity)
  • It over-predicts the amount of working class crime: not all poor people turn to crime
  • Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates (Japan)
• Panopticon


  • A perfect prison should be constructed in a way that cells should be placed around a 'panoptic tower'
  • There should be a belief that individuals could be watched at any time
  • Bentham thought that society should operate in the same way and that individuals would then start to police themselves as a result of believing that they could be watched at any time
• Realist approaches differ greatly from theories such as Marxism, who state that crime is a social construction
• Realists argue that there has been a significant rise in the crime rate, especially in street crime, burglary and assault
• Realists are concerned about the widespread fear of crime and the impact of crime on its victims
• Realists argue that other theories have failed to offer realistic solutions to the problem
• Zero Tolerance


  The best way to reduce crime is through control and punishment (e.g. longer prison sentences)
• Right Realists reject the Marxist idea that economic or structural factors such as poverty and inequality are the root cause of crime
• Causes of crime according to Right Realists

  • Biological differences
  • Inadequate Socialisation
  • Individuals rational choice to offend
• Biological differences


  Make some people more predisposed to committing crime than others, e.g. certain hormones and personality traits can lead to increased aggression, impulsivity and risk taking
• Inadequate Socialisation


  When children are not brought up properly (neglect, abuse etc.), this increases the risk of them becoming offenders
• Rational Choice Theory


  The decision to commit crime is due to a choice based on a rational calculation of the consequences. If the rewards are perceived to outweigh the costs, then someone may turn to crime
• Routine Activity Theory


  For a crime to occur, three factors are necessary: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian
• Right Realists do not believe it is possible to deal with biological differences, as these are natural and innate. Plus, dealing with socialisation is very difficult.
• Solutions to crime according to Right Realists

  Focus on making crime less attractive and raising the costs of committing crime, e.g. through 'target hardening' and harsher punishments
• Strengths of Right Realism

  • Several studies support Rational Choice Theory
  • Right realism may explain some opportunistic petty crimes such as theft
• Weaknesses of Right Realism

  • Experimental studies may not apply to real offenders
  • Not all crimes are the result of rational decisions, e.g. violent crimes are often impulsive
• Left Realism developed during the 80's and 90's
• Left Realism


  • Like Marxists see society as an unequal capitalist one, but believe in gradual change rather than the violent overthrow of capitalism
  • They look at crime on an individual level, and what factors cause an INDIVIDUAL to commit crime
• Left Realist explanations of crime

  • Relative Deprivation
  • Subcultures
  • Marginalisation
• Relative Deprivation


  The idea that people are deprived (materially or otherwise) compared with others in society, e.g. due to media/advertising and societal inequality
• Subcultures


  Groups within a culture that differentiate themselves from the parent culture, often maintaining their own norms and values