Paper 1

• Microscopy


  The study of small objects using a microscope
• Light microscope


  • First developed in the mid 17th century
  • Uses light to form an image
  • Can be used to view live specimens
  • Relatively cheap and easy to use
  • Can magnify up to 2,000 times
• Resolution


  The ability to see two things as separate objects
• Light microscope


  • Has a low resolution with a resolving power of around 200 nanometers
• Electron microscope


  • Developed by scientists in the 1930s
  • Uses electrons to form an image
  • Specimens must be dead first
  • Very expensive and has many conditions that need to be met
  • Can magnify up to 2 million times
  • Has a high resolution of 0.2 nanometers
• The electron microscope is much better than the light microscope in terms of magnification and resolution
• The high magnification and resolution of the electron microscope allows scientists to see and understand more about the subcellular structures of cells
• Animal cell

  Contains a nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, and ribosomes
• Nucleus


  Controls the cell's activities and contains genetic material (DNA)
• Cell membrane


  Responsible for controlling the passage of substances in and out of the cell
• Cytoplasm


  Liquid gel that fills the entire cell and is where chemical reactions occur
• Mitochondria


  Where aerobic respiration occurs to release energy for the cell
• Ribosomes


  Site of protein synthesis
• Plant cell


  Contains a nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts, and a permanent vacuole
• Chloroplasts


  Contain chlorophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis
• Permanent vacuole


  Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell rigid
• Cell wall


  Made of cellulose, strengthens and supports the plant cell
• Animal and plant cells are both eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells


  Have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material enclosed in a nucleus
• Prokaryotic cells


  Lack a true nucleus, have a single loop of DNA in the cytoplasm, and may have plasmids and a cell wall
• Bacteria are prokaryotic cells
• Specialized animal cells


  • Sperm cell: has a tail for movement, an acrosome with enzymes, and a large nucleus
  • Muscle cell: has many mitochondria for energy, and special proteins for contraction
  • Nerve cell: has a long axon, dendrites for connections, and nerve endings to pass the sensations on
• Specialized plant cells


  • Root hair cell: has a large surface area, a large vacuole, and many mitochondria
  • Xylem cell: forms long hollow tubes with lignin spirals to transport water and minerals
  • Phloem cell: has sieve plates to allow movement of dissolved food, and companion cells with mitochondria
• Diffusion


  The spreading out of particles in a solution or gas from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
• Factors affecting diffusion rate


  • Temperature: higher temperature increases rate
  • Concentration gradient: steeper gradient increases rate
  • Surface area: larger surface area increases rate
• Osmosis


  The diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane
• Osmosis is important in animal cells to maintain the right internal solute concentrations
• Osmosis


  1. Occurs down a concentration gradient or from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution

  2. Net movement of water is from the left side to the right side

  3. Water concentration will eventually be equal on both sides

  4. Water molecules will continue to move back and forth across the partially permeable membrane but there's no further net movement of water, the water is balanced on both sides
• Importance of osmosis in animal cells

  • Ensures solutes like glucose and salts are at the right concentration inside the cell
  • The internal environment needs to be kept just right for the cell to work
  • The difference in concentration between the cell's internal environment and the external solution determines how much osmosis occurs
• What happens when a red blood cell is put into a hypotonic solution

  Water moves into the cell, stretching it, and the cell may even burst if a lot of water moves in, killing the cell
• What happens when a red blood cell is put into an isotonic solution


  Nothing happens, as the two solutions are the same, there is no net movement of water, no osmosis occurs
• What happens when a red blood cell is put into a hypertonic solution

  Water moves out of the red blood cell and into the beaker, as the red blood cell solution is more diluted, the cell will shrink and not function properly
• Required practical A by osmosis looks at the effect of concentration of salt or sugar on the mass of plant tissue
• Active transport


  Substances move from a low concentration to a high concentration, against the concentration gradient, requiring energy from respiration
• Active transport


  • Moves substances against the concentration gradient
  • Requires energy from respiration
• Examples of active transport

  • Mineral ions moving from the dilute solution in the soil into the more concentrated solution in the root hair cells
  • Glucose moving from the dilute solution in the small intestine into the more concentrated solution in the blood vessels
• Mitosis and the cell cycle

  1. Stage 1: Cell growth, DNA replication forming two copies of each chromosome

  2. Stage 2: Mitosis, one set of chromosomes pulled to each end of the cell, nucleus divides

  3. Stage 3: Cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two identical cells
• Importance of mitosis and the cell cycle


  Development, growth, and repair
• Stem cells


  Undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized cells and regenerate new stem cells
• Functions of stem cells

  • Differentiation to produce different cell types
  • Regeneration to produce new stem cells