Psychopathology

• what is psychopathology?


  the study of mental disorders in terms of their causes, development, course, classification and treatment
• what are the four definitions of abnormality?

  Statistical deviation

  Deviation from social norms

  Failure to function adequately

  Deviation from ideal mental health
• what is statistical deviation?

  a person is considered abnormal if their behaviour/ characteristic is less common than the general population
• what are strengths of statistical deviation?

  real life application

  - below 70 IQ = intellectual disability disorder

  - useful to have an objective number to distinguish disorders in some cases
• what are limitations of statistical deviation?

  -unusual characteristics can be positive - unusually high IQ seen as good

  -not all types of abnormality are unusual/infrequent - 1/4 of people diagnosed with depression in their lives

  -not everyone benefits from a label as it can lead to prejudice and suggests disorders are negative
• what is deviation from social norms?

  a persons thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it goes against the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group

  - behaviour may be incomprehensible to others and make others feel threatened or uncomfortable
• what is a strength of deviation from social norms?

  real life application

  - antisocial personality disorder - these people fail to conform to prosocial standards e.g. don't follow accepted laws or moral standards of behaviour
• what is a limitation of deviation from social norms?

  cultural relativism

  - social norms vary between cultures and over time - some disorders are 'culture bound' - schizophrenia is western, in Africa may be seen as normal

  - behaviour must be seen in context - its not the behaviour that is abnormal it is when and where it happens

  - can lead to human rights abuses e.g. used to control certain groups of people
• what is failure to function adequately?

  a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
• what characteristics does Rosenhan and Seligman suggest for failure to function adequately?


  - not conforming to interpersonal rules e.g. maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space

  - experiencing severe personal distress (impacts ability to function)

  - behaviour is irrational or a danger to themselves (maladaptive, extreme risk taking behaviour)
• what are strengths of the failure to function adequately?

  - takes into account an individuals subjective experiences -- for example amount of distress in different situations

  - adequately captures when people need help
• what are limitations of failure to function adequately?

  - cultural relativism

  - how do we measure distress? (subjective)

  - most people fail to function adequately at some point (doesn't always mean they are abnormal) -- for example, during exams many people find it hard to cope (normal?)

  - many people engage in behaviour that is maladaptive/ harmful to themselves, but we do not class them as abnormal
• what is deviation from ideal mental health?

  rather than defining what is abnormal, were define what is normal/ideal and anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal
• what is criteria did Jahoda suggest for ideal mental health?


  - positive view of self - self esteem

  - can cope with stress

  - self actualisation (capability for reaching potential)

  - independent from other people

  - have an accurate perception of reality

  - positive friendships and relationships
• what are strengths of deviation from ideal mental health?

  - comprehensive definition - it covers a broad range of criteria for mental health

  - covers range of reasons why people may seek help fro mental health
• what are limitations of deviation from ideal mental health?

  - cultural relativism

  - what is viewed as 'ideal' varies across time and culture -- independent from other people = western viewpoint , women in some cultures cannot be independent

  - very few people would meet all criteria for 'ideal' mental health -- most people struggle with stress at some point
• what are behavioural characteristics of depression?

  - reduced activity levels -- lacking energy to get out of bed/ do basic functions

  - disruption to sleep and eating behaviours -- over /under sleeping (insomnia) , over/under eating , change to normal eating / sleeping behaviours

  - aggression and self harm
• what are behavioural characteristics?

  the way people act
• what are emotional characteristics of depression?

  - lowered mood e.g. 'worthless' 'empty'

  - anger

  - lowered self esteem - self blame for things they are not responsible for
• what are emotional characteristics?

  the way people feel
• what are cognitive characteristics for depression?

  - poor concentration

  - attention focussed on negative aspect of a situation

  - faulty thinking - false, irrational, negative beliefs

  - cognition distortions - catastrophic
• what are cognitive characteristics?

  thinking processes e.g. knowing, perceiving and believing
• what is the cognitive approach to explaining depression?

  - thoughts and beliefs are major factors in causing the emotional state of depression

  - people with depression have irrational negative view of the world
• what are cognitive approach explanations for depression?

  - Beck's cognitive theory

  - Ellis's ABC model
• what is Beck's cognitive theory?

  believes depression is a result of maladaptive or faulty thinking processes which lead to behavioural and emotional symptoms. Suggested 3 parts of these cognitive problems :

  1. faulty information processing

  2. negative self-schemas

  3. the negative triad
• what is faulty information processing?

  focussing on negative aspects of a situation and ignoring the positives - 'black and white' thinking
• what is negative self schemas?


  a package of information we have about ourselves
• how do childhood events lead to negative self schemas?

  - loss of a parent

  - rejection by peers

  - criticism by parents

  - criticism by teacher

  - physical abuse

  - emotional abuse
• what is the negative triad?

  depressed people feel as they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. They have negative views about :

  - the self

  - the future

  - the world (society in general)

  these thoughts occur automatically
• what is Ellis's ABC model?


  suggests depression is a result of irrational beliefs. He used the ABC model to suggest how these beliefs affect our behaviour and emotional state

  - A refers to an activating agent

  - B is the belief (which is either rational or irrational)

  - C is the consequence (irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions e.g. low mood)
• what are strengths of cognitive explanations for depression?

  - good supporting evidence - lots of evidence to show depression is associated with negative self schemas and the cognitive triad (Grazioli and Terry)

  - practical application in cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
• what are limitations of cognitive explanations for depression?


  - cognitive explanations dont explain all aspects of depression e.g. delusions, hallucinations, extreme anger

  - Ellis's model suggests depression is activated by an event but this isn't always the case

  - are negative thoughts always irrational?

  - are negative thoughts the underlying cause of depression
• what is the aim of CBT?

  - change negative thoughts (cognitive parts) and change behaviour (behavioural part)

  - challenge negative thoughts to make them more rational

  - the same principle can be applied to Beck and Ellis' theories
• what is the aim of Becks CBT?

  to identify automatic negative thoughts linked to the negative triad and challenge them
• what does Becks CBT do to challenge negative beliefs?

  - identify negative thoughts - 'thought catching'

  - data gathering : record positive experiences e.g. when they have enjoyed something e.g. diary keeping

  - patient as scientist: find evidence to show beliefs are faulty
• what is the aim of Ellis' REBT?


  - to identify and challenge irrational thoughts

  - extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model
• how does Ellis' REBT identify and challenge irrational thoughts?

  Dispute - rational beliefs challenged using logic and evidence

  - empirical argument = is there evidence to support the belief

  - logical argument = does the negative belief follow on from the facts

  Effect - irrational belief is changed to a rational belief and changes the consequence
• how does behavioural activation in CBT treat depression?

  - patients encouraged to be more active and engage in enjoyable activities

  - the behavioural activation will provide more evidence for the irrational nature of beliefs
• what are strengths of CBT?

  - it is effective - CBT is often shown to as effective as medication for treating depression and very effective if used alongside medication

  -- March et al - 3 groups, after 36 weeks

  CBT group : 81% improved

  antidepressant group : 81% improved

  both : 86% improved

  - can be a successful long term treatment. It gives patients control over their illness. They are given 'tools for life'

  - does not have side effects, unlike drug treatments that can cause insomnia, temporarily worse symptoms, temporary anxiety and digestive issues
• what are limitations of CBT?

  - may not work for more sever cases - hallucinations + extreme anger

  - doesn't benefit all patients - e.g. some patients benefit from exploring their past

  - doesn't benefit patients who have depression due to a biological cause

  - over emphasis on cognition - doesn't alter the patients environment which is beyond their control

  - unclear why it works - is it something particular about CBT or is it just taking to a therapist helpful in improving mood? could non-qualified therapists be just as effective? - cheaper