gender

• BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY [BSRI]


  presents characteristics that would be commonly identified as masculine, feminine, neutral (20 of each) + rate themselves on 7 point rating scale + [high masc; low fem, high fem; high masc, high masc; high fem, low masc, low fem]
• DABBS ET AL [SUPPORT ROLE OF HORMONES]


  prison population that offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes
• TRICKER ET AL [AGAINST ROLE OF HORMONES]


  double blind study; 43 males given either weekly injection of testosterone or placebo (no significant differences in aggression were found)
• NANNE VAN DER POLL ET AL [SUPPORT ROLE OF HORMONES]


  female rats injected with testosterone became more physically + sexually aggressive
• KOHLBERG [COGNITIVE THEORY] cognitive theory: gender identity (around 2), gender stability (around 4), gender constancy (around 6)
• SLABY + FREY [SUPPORT COGNITIVE THEORY]


  women + males doing same task behind split screen + measured time eyes were fixated on screen (gender constancy - watched same sex model most) + children who hadn't reached constancy watched both
• MUNROE ET AL [SUPPORT COGNITIVE THEORY]


  cross cultural evidence; kenya, samoa, nepal (suggest kohlbergs theory may be universal)
• BUSSEY + BANDURA [CONTRADICTS COGNITIVE THEORY BUT SUPPORTS GENDER SCHEMA] 


  children as young as 4 report feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys + feeling bad about opposite (suggests children begin to absorb gender appropriate information as soon as they identify themselves as either male or female)
• MARTIN + HALVERSON


  gender schema theory: as child gets older schema will get more complex; organised sets of beliefs + expectations appropriate to gender [based on stereotypes] + study; more likely to remember photographs gender consistent behaviour than gender inconsistent
• FREUDS PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY


  oedipus/electra complex: identification; identify with same sex parent + internalisation; taking on board the gender identity of same sex parent
• LITTLE HANS [SUPPORT PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY]


  5yr old boy with phobia of horses (+ oedipus complex) unconsciously representing the fear of his father [defence mechanism of displacement; fear of his father onto horses]
• POPPER [AGAINST PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY]


  untestable concepts and cant be falsified = not open to empirical testing (pseudoscience - fake science)
• GOLOMBOK [AGAINST PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY] 


  freud suggests you need both parents + said raised in a non nuclear family would cause effect on child's development but found that single parent families went on to develop normal gender identities
• SMITH + LLYOD [SUPPORT SLT + GENDER SCHEMA]


  gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age (adults selected gender appropriate behaviour for the gender they “thought” the babies were)
• DUBIN [AGAINST SLT]


  children able to take note of behaviour, selection and imitation of behaviour doesnt come until later (reach gender constancy like kohlberg) - influence of age and maturation on learning gender concepts isnt a factor in the SLT + may be a limitation of the explanation
• MARGARET MEAD [CULTURE + GENDER ROLES]


  tribal island of new guinea [the arapesh - gentle + responsive, mundugumor - aggressive and hostile, tchamboli - dominant + organised village life; women, passive + considered to be 'decorative'; men] (suggests might not be a direct biological relationship between sex + gender, gender roles may be culturally determined)
• DAVID BUSS [CULTURAL SIMILARITIES]


  found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents
• ROBERT MUNROE + RUTH MUNROE [CULTURAL SIMILARITIES]


  most societies, divisions of labour is organised along gender lines [men typically 'bread winners' and women 'nurturers']
• DEREK FREEMAN [AGAINST CULTURE + GENDER ROLES] 


  critique of meads conclusions, conducted follow up study + found findings were flawed as she was misled by some of her participants (+ her preconceptions influenced findings = observer bias)
• JOHN BERRY ET AL [AGAINST CULTURE + GENDER ROLES] 


  imposed etic; western ways of doing research which are assumed to be 'universal' may be meaningless when transferred to other cultures
• BUSSEY + BANDURA [MEDIA + GENDER ROLES] 


  men 'advice givers' [independent + ambitious] + women 'advice seekers' [dependent + unambitious]
• MCGHEE + FRUEH [MEDIA + GENDER ROLES]


  children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypical views in behaviour + attitudes
• SUZANNE PINGREE [AGAINST MEDIA + GENDER ROLES]


  gender steryotyping was reduced when tv adverts showed women in non stereotypical roles but strengthened when shown to boys
• NING ZHOU ET AL [GENDER DYSPHORIA - BRAIN SEX THEORY]


  studied bed nucleus of stria termanalis + around 40% larger in males than females + post-mortem studies of six male-to-female transgender individuals, the BSTc was found to be a similar size to that of a typical female brain
• FRANK KRUIJVER ET AL [FOLLOW UP STUDY]


  studied the same brain tissue but focused on the number of neurons in the BSTc rather than the volume + six transgender individuals showed a sex-reversed identity pattern with an average BSTc neuron number in the female range
• FREDERICK COOLIDGE ET AL [GENETIC FACTORS OF GD]


  assessed 157 twin pairs + found 62% variance accounted by genetic factors (strongly heritable)
• GUNTER HEYLENS ET AL [SUPPORT GENETIC FACTORS OF GD] 


  compared twin pairs [23 MZ, 21 DZ] (one of each pair had gender dysphoria) + found 39% (9) of monozygotic were concordant for GD compared to 0% dizygotic twins
• LIONEL DVESEY + ETHEL PERSON [GD; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY]


  GD in biological males is caused by experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established (child fantasies of a symbiotic fusion with their mother to relieve the anxiety + danger of separation is removed (consequence = child becomes mother + adopts a female gender identity)
• ROBERT STOLLER [SUPPORT PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY]


  interviews with GD in males seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers would lead to greater female identification + atypical gender identity in long term
• LYNN LIBEN + REBECCA BIGLER [GD; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL - COGNITIVE EXPLANATION] 


  extension of gender schema theory that emphasises individual differences in gender identity (dual pathway theory); 1st - acknowledges development of gender schema + then direct gender appropriate attitudes + behaviour as part of 'normal' development + 2nd gender attitudes are affected by his or her activity (personal interest become more dominant than gender identity - turn influence in gender schema
• GEORGE REKERS [AGAINST PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY]


  suggests that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother; the assumption that GD is caused by separation anxiety in childhood is very difficult to test
• MARTIN + LITTLE [AGAINST GST]

  found that children as young as 2-3 demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours and attitudes, supporting the prediction that only gender identity is needed to develop a sense of gender, and weakening Kohlberg’s theory.