reform- intense reaction = angry

• Reforms of Alexander II (1855-1881):

  • Censorship Slackened (1865):
  • Allowed expression of grievances; courts decided press law violations.
  • Pre-publication censorship reduced.
  • Emancipation of Serfs (1861):
  • Peasants dissatisfied; had less land than under serfdom; bought freedom over 49 years.
  • Zemstvos and City Dumas (1864, 1870):
  • Elected provincial and district bodies improving local facilities.
  • State-appointed chairmen; limited franchise favoring nobility and gentry.
  • Local dumas similarly restricted but expanded activities.
• • Reaction of Alexander III (1881-1894):
  • Assassination of Alexander II (1881):
  • Reforms halted; some reversed.
  • Results:

  1. Purge of reformist ministers, Conservatives replaced them.
  2. Emergency regulations enabled martial law imposition
  3. Zemstvos' autonomy restricted.
  4. Intensified censorship.
  5. Land captains introduced for tighter peasant supervision.
  6. Okhrana expanded to expose political activity.