Psychology paper 2

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• Nervous system


  Body wide system of nerve cells that collects information from the world, processes this information and then takes action by directing bodily organs and muscles via the transmission of electrochemical messages
• Divisions of the nervous system

  • Central nervous system (CNS)
  • Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
  • Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
  • Somatic nervous system (SNS)
• Central nervous system (CNS)


  Involves complex processing, includes the brain for all conscious and most unconscious processing, and the spinal cord which receives and transmits information and some reflex processing
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  A body-wide network of messenger neurons, sensory afferent neurons take information to the CNS, motor efferent neurons take information away from the CNS
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)


  The part of the PNS that controls actions of internal glands and is an involuntary system so not under conscious control
• Somatic nervous system (SNS)


  The part of the PNS that controls skeletal muscles, it's a voluntary system so under conscious control
• Parts of the ANS


  • Sympathetic system
  • Parasympathetic system
• Sympathetic system


  Part of the ANS, increases bodily activities, release of noradrenaline, activates the fight or flight response, increases heart rate, sweat, breathing rate, and dilates pupils
• Parasympathetic system


  Part of the ANS, decreases bodily activities, releases acetylcholine, activates the rest and digest response, decreases heart rate, sweat, and breathing rates, constricts pupils
• Homeostasis is maintained by a balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
• Endocrine system glands


  • Pituitary gland
  • Hypothalamus
  • Pineal gland
  • Thyroid gland
  • Adrenal glands
  • Ovaries
  • Testicles
• Pituitary gland


  Also known as the master gland, produces hormones that control the release of hormones from other glands
• Hypothalamus


  Hormone CRH links the nervous system to the endocrine system
• Pineal gland


  Hormone melatonin modulates sleep pattern, keeping the body to a day-night rhythm
• Thyroid gland


  Hormone thyroxine modulates metabolism, the rate of use in the body
• Adrenal glands


  Hormone adrenaline regulates the effect of the fight or flight response
• Ovaries


  Hormone estrogen develops secondary sexual characteristics in females
• Testicles


  Hormone testosterone leads to the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males
• Reflex arc


  Consists of sensory, relay, and motor neurons
• Reflex arc


  Sensory neuron detects sensation, action potential travels along axon, signal converted to chemical signal at synapse, relay neuron sends signal to CNS and motor neuron, motor neuron stimulates effector (e.g. muscle) to respond
• Synapse


  Structure at the end of a neuron that allows neurons to communicate by passing on chemical signals, called synaptic transmission
• Neurotransmitters


  Chemical messages released by neurons, can be excitatory (stimulate) or inhibitory (suppress)
• Action potential


  Travels down axon, forces vesicles to release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic neuron, if threshold reached new action potential forms
• Excitation


  Excitatory neurotransmitters increase likelihood of new action potential forming in postsynaptic neuron, causing depolarization
• Inhibition


  Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease likelihood of new action potential forming in postsynaptic neuron, causing hyperpolarization
• Summation


  Combined effect of all inhibitory and excitatory influences, resulting in new action potential forming or not
• Information can only be passed unidirectionally between pre- and post-synaptic neurons
• Fight or flight response

  Evolutionary survival mechanism in response to a threat, primes body and mind for extreme action such as fighting or escaping
• Fight or flight response

  Stressor detected by hypothalamus, HPA axis activated, pituitary gland releases ACTH, adrenal cortex releases cortisol, hypothalamus activates sympathetic ANS, adrenal medulla releases adrenaline
• Psychological effects of adrenaline

  Increased anxiety, attention, and alertness
• Physical effects of adrenaline

  Increased blood flow to brain and skeletal muscles, quick thinking and reactions, decreased blood flow to skin, digestive and immune systems, dilated pupils, faster breathing
• Fight or flight response is maladaptive in modern world, frequently triggered by stimuli that cannot be run away from or fought
• Acute stress is a short-term response to immediate pressures, exciting in small amounts and giving focus and energy, but exhausting and maintained long-term
• Chronic stress from frequent triggering of fight or flight response can result in stress-related illness affecting immune and circulatory systems