observational techniques

• Naturalistic observation

  • High ecological validity
  • High external validity as done in a natural environment
  • Low ecological validity if participants become aware that the are being watched
  • Replication can be difficult
  • Uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables are presented
• Controlled observation

  • Researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behaviour
  • There is more control over extraneous and confounding variables
  • Easy replication
  • More likely to be observing unnatural behaviour as takes place in an unnatural environment
  • Low mundane realism so low ecological validity
  • Demand characteristics presented
• Overt observation


  • Ethically acceptable as informed consent is given
  • More likely to be recording unnatural behaviour as participants know they are being watched
  • Demand characteristics likely which reduces validity of findings
• Covert observation

  • Natural behaviour recorded hence high internal validity of results
  • Removes problem of participant reactivity
  • Ethical issues presented as no informed consent given
  • Could be invading the privacy of the participants
• Participant observation

  • Can be more insightful which increases the validity of the findings
  • There's always the possibility that behaviour may change if the participants were to find out they are being watched
  • Researcher may lose objectivity as may start to identify too strongly with the participants
• Non-participant observation

  • Researcher can be more objective as less likely to identify with participants since watching from outside of the group
  • Open to observer bias for example of stereotypes the observer is aware of
  • Researchers may lose some valuable insight
• One problem with carrying out observations is that observer bias is easily presented
• A solution to this problem is checking the inter observer reliability of the observation
• Inter observer reliability


  Many researchers conducting the observational study, their reports are then compared and a score calculated using the formula: Total number of agreements / total number of observations x 100
• The score that shows high inter observer reliability is any score above 80%
• methods of collecting data by observing and recording people's behaviour