education

• Overview of education and health- Mao declared education a key priority as it had been an 'exclusive preserve of the landlords' so 90% of the population had access to it. Between 1949-65, education policy switched back and forth between the needs of economic production, replicate successful communist reforms and commit to the USSR's model. By 1965, education was disrupted massively by the CR. Even so, communist education was a key way of gaining support and commitment, making huge progress in schooling and literacy.
• Education before reform- Low educational levels were inherited from the nationalists at the end of the Civil War. One study showed only 30% of males and 1% of females aged 7 and over could read a simple letter. Only 45% of males and 2% of females had received any schooling. 2/3 had learned the Confucian concepts of morality and classical works designed for bureaucrats.
• Subjects before reform- Practical subjects that were needed in a modern economy like science weren't on the curriculum. Imperial exams had been abolished in 1905 and modern schools with more Western subjects were created, but in small numbers and only in cities. The system was elitist with the best schools in the wealthiest neighbourhood which charged fees and entrance exams. In higher education, humanities dominated with 59% of students studying liberal arts. Only 10% studied natural science and 3% studied agriculture.
• Rote learning before reform- Teaching was based on rote learning from books, memorisation and repetition. Mao said that only a small part of his learning was from books and questioning and seeking solutions was the true way to learn. In 1917, 7 of Mao's friends died from overwork and excessive study.
• Improving literacy- A new form of written language was introduced to simplify the traditional and complex characters. Between 1949 and 1957, primary school students increased from 26 million to 64 million. In rural areas, primary schools were run, financed and managed by the local village which improved access to education. Winter schools provided short courses for adult peasants which the party claimed 42 million peasants attended. However, the education minister admitted that 78% of the population remained illiterate.
• Higher education- University enrolments almost quadrupled. The campaigns in the 1950s had removed most western and missionary educators. Higher education was modelled closely on the USSR with a separate Ministry of Education set up in 1952. Between 1952-8, 600 Russians taught in Chinese unis and by 1959, 38,000 Chinese students were trained at Russian unis. The focus was on technical jobs for the modern economy. Institutes focusing on mining steel and geology were created. By 1953, 63% of students were in engineering, medicine and agriculture.
• Introduction of Pinyin- A problem within China was communication as different groups and areas had different languages and cultures. There was no standardised written alphabet and words were written with letters, only symbols. It was hugely complex as each word had a different symbol. In 1955, the government introduced a new written language based on the Latin alphabet. Instead of symbols, the letters meant words in Mandarin which could be pronounced phonetically. It remains the form of written language in China.
• Failures of reform- Education remained elitist. The CCP had promised to make opportunities available for peasants but the grade requirements for schools and unis favoured kids of the elite and children of party cadres. Universities were mainly available for urban students whilst rural children didn't receive schooling. Graduates sought roles within the CCP and government: a communist elite had replaced the old imperial one. Teaching in villages was left to uneducated cadres and winter schools weren't effective in creating literacy as many forgot their progress from one year to the next.
• GLF education changes- A 'directive on education work' (1958) criticised bourgeois ideas like education for education's sake. They wanted teachers to be promoted due to political qualifications and practical abilities rather than academics. Manual labour was introduced into the curriculum, promoting Mao's 'half work half study' programme. Vocational courses in middle schools taught basic maths and languages to allow peasants to support the introduction of modern agriculture and industry. By 1960, there was one school per commune, with 30000 schools for 2.9 million students.
• Impact of the GLF on education- Schools had cut too many classes for productive labour aspect. Students didn't attend school due to working on backyard furnaces. In 1959, the CCP limited changes to curriculums and guidelines were provided over time spent on manual labour. In rural areas, children moved from primary school to agricultural middle schools whereas urban kids were in full-time education with the best funding and teachers. Old elitism had returned as cadres' kids got the best schooling to progress into the party and carry on the bourgeois class system.
• Collapse of education after 1966- The failure to create educational equality had convinced Mao that capitalist roaders had taken over the CCP. In 1964, Mao complained the 12 year education system was too long, exams were too hard and manual labour needed to have more of a focus. As part of the Socialist Education Campaign, politics and class background returned as grounds for admission to colleges. Education focused on Marxist theory and class struggle with socialist heroes like Lei Feng being central figures.
• The CR and education- Mao said the task of the CR was to reform the old education system and philosophy. Instead of schooling, he offered students the chance to experience revolutionary fervour. Schools and unis were closed as the RGs abandoned education to travel to Beijing for the 8 mass rallies. The young attacked their teachers in a frenzy. Radical students put their teachers in struggle meetings, forcing them to kneel for hours in the aeroplane position with their hands behind their back. The most revolutionary students often had bourgeois backgrounds.
• The CR and education 2- Abandoning school allowed previously bourgeois children to prove their loyalty to communism and Mao. Sometimes their victims' apologies would be accepted by most times, they were beaten and tortured to death. The violence shattered China's schooling system.
• CR impact on education- The Cultural Revolution removed motivation for schooling. One boy gained national attention when he submitted a blank paper for a college admissions test. He said he was working on the communes for 18 hours a day so couldn't revise. The challenge to the focus on rote learning over practical skills can be viewed as a success for Mao who wanted more egalitarian schooling. At the end of the CR, youths were sent to the rural areas to learn about hard labour and peasant life. Most became disillusioned with the regime. They were uneducated and abandoned: the lost generation.