PSYC 203 Final Study Guide

• Authority


  A way of knowing, proposed by Charles Peirce, in which a person develops a belief by agreeing with someone perceived to be an expert
• Use of Reason


  Arriving at conclusions by using logic and reason
• A Priori Method


  A way of knowing, proposed by Charles Peirce, in which a person develops a belief by reasoning and reaching agreement with others who are convinced of the merits of the reasoned argument
• Empiricism


  The process of learning things through direct observation or experience, and reflection on those experiences
• Confirmation Bias


  Tendency to seek and pay special attention to information that supports one's beliefs, while ignoring information that contradicts a belief
• Belief Perseverance


  The tendency to hold on to a belief, even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the belief is false. It is likely that these beliefs form when the individual hears some truth being continuously repeated, in the absence of contrary information
• Availability Heuristic


  Occurs when we experience unusual or very memorable events and then overestimate how often such events typically occur. For example, happens when students change their answers on multiple choice tests, students hold on to the belief that changing an answer will be from right to wrong ("first instinct fallacy")
• Science


  A way of knowing characterized by the attempt to apply objective, empirical methods when searching for the causes of natural events
• Determinism


  The assumption made by scientists that all events have causes
• Discoverability


  By using agreed-upon scientific methods, causes can be discovered with some degree of confidence
• Statistical Determinism


  An assumption made by research psychologists that behavioural events can be predicted with a probability greater than chance
• Objectivity


  Said to exist when observations can be verified by more than one observer
• Introspection


  Method used in the early years of psychological science in which an individual would complete a task and then describe the events occurring in consciousness while performing the task
• Data-Driven


  Describes the belief of research psychologists that conclusions about behaviour should be supported by data collected scientifically
• Empirical Questions


  Questions that can be answered through the systematic observations and techniques that characterize scientific methodology
• Hypothesis


  Prediction about a study's outcome
• Theory


  Set of statements that summarize what is known about some phenomena and propose working explanations for those phenomena
• Falsification


  Research strategy, advocated by Popper, that emphasizes putting theories to the test by trying to disprove or falsify them
• Pseudoscience


  Applied to any field of inquiry that appears to use scientific methods and tries hard to give that impression, but is actually based on inadequate, unscientific methods and makes claims that are generally false or, at best, overly simplistic
• Anecdotal Evidence


  Evidence from a single case that illustrates a phenomenon; when relied on exclusively, as in pseudoscience, faulty conclusions can easily be drawn
• Effort Justification


  After expending a large amount of time or effort to obtain some goal, people giving the effort feel pressured to convince themselves the effort was worthwhile, even if the resulting outcome is less positive than expected
• Description


  A goal of psychological science in which behaviours are accurately classified or sequences of environmental stimuli and behavioural events are accurately listed
• Laws


  Regular, predictable relationships between events
• Predictions


  A goal of psychological science in which statements about the future occurrence of a behavioural event are made, usually with some probability
• Explanation


  A goal of science in which the causes of events are sought
• Application


  A goal of science in which basic principles discovered through scientific methods are applied in order to solve problems
• Translational Research


  Research that is done for both better understanding of a particular phenomenon as well as for its application to promote physical and psychological well-being
• Ethics


  A set of principles prescribing morally correct behaviours
• Critical Incidents Technique


  Method, used by ethics committees, that surveys psychologists and asks for examples of unethical behaviour by psychologists
• Research Participants


  A person who takes part in and contributes data to a research study in psychology
• Institutional Review Board (IRB)


  University committee responsible for evaluating whether research proposals provide adequate protection of the rights of participants; must exist for any college or university receiving federal funds for research
• In a university or college setting, this group consists of at least five people, usually faculty members from several departments and including at least one member of the outside community and a minimum of one non-scientists
• Exempt from Full Review

  Include studies conducted in an educational setting for training purposes, purely naturalistic observations of studies of public behaviour, survey research that does not assess sensitive topics, and archival research
• Expedited Review


  Include many of the typical psychology laboratory experiments in basic processes such as memory, attention, or perception, in which participants will not experience uncomfortable levels of stress or have their behaviour manipulated in any significant fashion
• Full Review


  All other research
• Risk


  The ethical decision making that goes into the planning of the study, the chance that participating in research would have greater costs than benefits to the participant
• Informed Consent


  The idea that persons should be given sufficient information about a study to make their decision to participate as a research subject informed and voluntary
• Assent


  To give assent is to say "yes"; in the SRCD code of ethics for research with children, refers to the willingness of the child to participate in the study. Researchers give the child as much information as possible to gauge whether the child is willing to participate
• Deception


  A research strategy in which participants are not told all the details of an experiment at its outset; used for the purpose of avoiding demand characteristics
• Debriefing


  A post-experimental session in which the experimenter explains the study's purpose to participants, reduces any discomfort they felt, and answers any questions they pose