Psychodynamic of personality development

• Psychodynamic theories of personality development

  Theories that aim to understand mental disorders as consequences of disturbances in the process of formation (development) of mental apparatus and personality
• Why psychodynamic theories are needed

  We can understand most mental disorders as consequences of disturbances in the process of formation (development) of mental apparatus and personality, as a result its' functioning is immature, ineffective and doesn't allow satisfaction of human needs and maintaining of healthy psychological balance
• Factors that can disturb healthy development

  • Biological
  • Psychological
  • Interpersonal
  • Social
• Disturbance in development

  Can create pathologic modes of functioning at the biological, psychological, interpersonal and social levels which produce symptoms of mental disorder
• Aim of psychotherapy

  To correct pathological and re-establish normal development of personality
• What psychodynamic theories have in common

  • None of the theories is fully comprehensive but complements each other
  • Development of human personality (as his physical development) has genetically predetermined course which was set in the human evolution
  • Psychic, personality development is initiated and facilitated by physical processes in the organism
  • It is dynamic process lasting the whole life, largely influenced by early personal and interpersonal experience, which is stored mainly at unconscious level and organizes all later activities of psychic life
• How psychodynamic theories differ

  • Goals and motivational factors of psychic development
  • Inner individual or interpersonal and social processes
  • What psychological processes are at focus: mastering physiological processes and needs of the organism, saving interpersonal experience in inner representations, development of self consciousness and self realization, control of anxiety and other psychological processes, development of attachment and interpersonal relationships, development of models of automatic (unconscious) reactions and social behavior
• Psychosexual theory of development (S. Freud)


  Psychic functioning is set by physiological processes – activity of viscera, endocrine glands, sense-organs and brain generates energy which creates physiological tension, further converted into emotional tension and seeking discharge. Physiological energy becomes initial source for energy for mental activities – instinctual drive named libido by S. Freud. Activities of psyche are designed to accumulate, control and find possibilities to discharge the accumulated tension. Limited capacities of a child and resistance of environment often don't allow fast discharge, what creates intra-psychic conflict between the wish and possibilities. Goal of psychological development – to improve capabilities to achieve best possible satisfaction and decrease discomfort by finding most effective compromise solutions for intra-psychic conflicts
• Libido


  Part of libidinal energy is generated and discharged through stimulation of erogenous zones - different parts of the body where skin or mucous have dense networks of sensory neurons, their stimulation generates strong impulses that create either excitement or its' discharge
• Oral stage


  From birth till the middle of the second year, prevailing erogenous zone – mouth cavity. Stimulation of mouth mucous by breastfeeding gives maximum excitement and satisfaction. Mouth is prevailing source of libido which activates suction reflex. Suction performs not just the function of feeding determined by survival instinct – feeling of satiety coupled with other pleasant sensations from the mouth cavity brings libidinal oral satisfaction. To get this satisfaction child needs external object – mother and her breast, she becomes first libidinal object for him. Biting provides discharge of aggressive impulses (e.g. anger for being left hungry until offered the breast, or teethe pain). In the beginning of this stage (suction period), child is predominantly passive in relation with libidinal object. Latter (in oral sadism period) child exhibits assertiveness demanding to offer him breast, doesn't let it go too early. Activities involving predominant erogenous zone and external object are used by a child to regulate his emotional state
• Anal stage


  From 1,5 till 3 years of age, prevailing erogenous zone – jejunum bowel and anus. Child is increasingly gaining voluntary control over defecating and urinating. Accumulation of feces in jejunum bowel produces tension which is discharged by defecation. Satisfaction can be experienced both by retention of feces and by their evacuation. Interaction with external object also plays important part – parents ask or demand a child to defecate to the toilet instead of clothes. With his voluntary activity – control of anal muscles – child can create a mutual atmosphere of satisfaction or frustration. Defecating to the toilet he satisfies his parents and at the same time experiences libidinal satisfaction himself. Refusing to do that, by defecating to the clothes, he expresses his anger and provokes anger in them. Models of interpersonal behavior and character traits (e.g. submissiveness or stubbornness) are set by these activities
• Phallic stage


  4 – 6 year of age, prevailing erogenous zone – genitals. Libidinal satisfaction can be experienced in infantile masturbation. Children are interested in genitals of their and opposite gender, demonstrate them to each other, experiencing voyeuristic and exhibitionistic satisfaction. Comparison of his/her genitals with genitals of the parents is important for the development of sexual identity. Central event – development of Oedipal complex, beginning of triadic relationships - desire to own the parent of the opposite sex and to eliminate the parent of the same sex who is seen as a rival. Castration anxiety – fear of punishment for such desires. Emergence of Super-ego – by obeying to the rules set by parents, child transforms them into personal norms of behavior and moral judgment. Improvement of Ego functions, use of mature psychological defenses. Repression – total oblivion of Oedipal desires. Identification with a parent of the same sex recognizing his/her superiority. Final development of all functional structures of psyche (id, ego, super-ego) and their inter-relational matrix
• Latent stage


  Begins after resolution of Oedipal complex and lasts till the onset of puberty. Repression of libidinal desires that makes them less obvious. No prevailing erogenous zone. Id energy with the help of more mature psychological defense mechanisms (e.g. sublimation, reaction formation) is used for improvement of different ego functions, e.g. learning, refinement of body and mind. Identification with the parent of the same sex continues differentiating along female or male line. Importance of Super-ego increases
• Genital stage


  Onset – beginning of puberty. Final biological maturation finalize also psychosexual development. Adult physical and psychological sexual life is being settled. Prevailing erogenous zone – again genitals. Sexual excitement arouses from 3 sources: inner somatic stimuli (e.g. action of sex hormones, stimulation of genitals), inner psychic processes (e.g. erotic fantasies, dreams, need of intimate relationships), external stimuli (e.g. seductive behavior of others, pornography). Sexual excitement motivates behavior which enables to reach the orgasm – sexual relationships or masturbation. Libido is aimed at real or imaginary external object. Psychosexual maturity is defined by ability to integrate lust and affection, tenderness and aggression in relationship with one object. Complete satisfaction can be achieved only if both – sexual object and sexual activity are acceptable to Super-ego. Ego is responsible for finding such kind of satisfaction
• Formation of personality

  With achievement of sexual maturity libidinal needs should be satisfied just in the mature way. Libidinal impulses from earlier developmental stages should remain unconscious, infantile ways of satisfaction could emerge just transformed, sublimated by ego defense mechanisms. Personal character is the constellation of such prevailing, most frequently used models of satisfaction seeking behaviors and emotional reactions to its' frustration. If personality is dominated by dynamic processes (id impulses and ways of satisfaction) of any one early stages, we can consider that developmental fixation occurred in this stage. If the needs were too heavily frustrated or satisfied at that stage, these needs and ways of satisfaction remain dominating in the latter adult life. Rigid fixation leads to immature, incoherent, maladaptive personality structure and risk of mental disorders
• Disorders of development

  Activities of libidinal satisfaction of early stages (oral, anal, voyeuristic or exhibitionistic) in their original form can be used by adult person just as a prelude to sexual intercourse. If these satisfactions become stronger and more important than sexual intercourse – sexual perversions occur. Another cause of perversions – choosing inappropriate object for libidinal desires and satisfactions. Neuroses and other mental disorders occur if Ego defenses repress unacceptable libidinal desires to unconsciousness but have inefficient control over them
• Latter modifications of Freud's theory

  Introduction of aggressive or death drive (thanatos), more positive view on Super-ego functions not just obstacle to satisfy libidinal desires but also a necessary mean of social control that allows cohabitation and survival of people by controlling aggressive drives, definition of mental health not an uncontrolled discharge of Id impulses but optimal control of these impulses that allows satisfaction of sexual and aggressive impulses, but keeps them from destructive manifestations - "ability to work and to love"
• Psychosocial theory of development (Erik Erikson)


  Integration of ego psychology and sociology, psychoanalysis and field research. Society, culture, prevailing economic and social relationships through education in the family and institutions participate in forming the Ego of a child. The goal of psychosocial and Ego development – best possible adaptation of a person in his social, cultural environment, successful if balance is maintained between alloplastic (changing environment) and autoplastic (changing oneself) modes of adaptation. Development of the personal identity in adolescence is the critical period for that (transition from childhood to adulthood) - conscious feeling of individual identity, consistency and coherence of personal character traits, synthesis of Ego functions, inner solidarity with ideals and identity of social group
• Psychosocial stages of development by Erik Erikson

  • 0 - 1½ Trust vs. Mistrust, Hope
  • 1½ - 3 Autonomy vs. Shame, Will
  • 3 - 5 Initiative vs. Guilt, Purpose
  • 5 - 12 Industry vs. Inferiority, Competency
  • 12 - 18 Identity vs. Role Confusion, Fidelity
  • 18 - 40 Intimacy vs. Isolation, Love
  • 40 - 65 Generativity vs. Stagnation, Care
  • 65+ Ego Integrity vs. Despair, Wisdom
• Psychosocial theory of development

  Ego develops in epigenetically pre-programmed stages. Important processes of personality development continue till senescence. In every stage mental apparatus of developing person has to deal with specific psychosocial crisis, epigenetic program of development and social environment puts requirements on the person who is not prepared to deal with them, crisis must be solved by Ego which has to develop new features for that. Success in solving the crisis of certain stage determines development of certain healthy or problematic personality traits (virtues) and development in further stages. Accumulating Ego capacities and character traits build the basics of personality structure. Healthy personality traits maintain mental health, problematic increase risk for mental disorders. Conflicts of every stage remain relevant through the whole life of a person. Experience of successful development in the latter stages can compensate and resolve problems of the development in earlier stages. Psychotherapy must provide such experience of successful resolution of the current crisis and promote more successful resolution of the problematic earlier crisis. Psychotherapy should pay attention to the experiences of all developmental stages, influence of psychosocial crisis on intra-psychic conflicts
• Separation-individuation process


  • Normal autism - first 4 weeks, when an infant is egocentric, sleeps most of the time. Main goal - attainment of homeostasis with environment
  • Normal symbiosis - 1 - 5 months, when infant acknowledges mother but not as individual person. Infant feels as one with the mother, separated from the world by a barrier
  • Separation-individuation - infant establishes contacts with the environment and other people
  • Hatching - 5 - 10 months; infant begins exploring the world using the mother as a point of orientation
  • Practicing - 10 - 16 months; crawling and walking abilities allow more active exploration and physical distancing from mother. But psychologically still experiences as one with the mother
  • Rapprochement - 15 - 24 months; child realizes that physical mobility means also psychic separateness and feels the need to be close with her again, wants her to be constantly in sight, only then feels safe enough to explore the world
  • Object constancy - 24 - 36 months; child realizes that mother has a separate identity and copes with that by creating her internal representation (internalization) which provides necessary support and comfort when she is physically away
• Separation-individuation theory

  • If mother is fearful, impatient or withdrawn (e.g. because of post-partum depression or character disorders), she can disturb healthy separation-individuation of a child
  • Child experiences anger and guilt because his normal wish of independence provokes resentment in mother
  • Disruptions in the process of separation-individuation result in inability to maintain reliable sense of individual identity in adulthood
  • Deficiencies in positive internalization can leave a sense of insecurity and low self-esteem
  • Disturbances of separation-individuation development are associated with "borderline" psychopathology, e.g. obsessive-compulsive disorder, personality disorders in adulthood or separation anxiety and oppositional defiant disorder in childhood
• Borderline psychopathology


  • In psychodynamic sense take the place between neuroses and psychoses
  • Characterized by intensive uncontrollable emotional states, extreme fluctuation in the images of self and others, inability to create and maintain mutually satisfactory intimate interpersonal relationships, sadomasochistic character traits, recurrent episodes of severe depression
• Successful treatment

  Needs new emotional experience provided by psychotherapeutic relationships which allows to fill the gaps of the Ego and identity development, acquiring stronger trust, independency, courage to see what's going on in inner and outside world, to have own opinion, needs without fear to be punished for
• Object relations systems

  • Experience gained in repetitive interactions with mother is transformed into internal unconscious psychic structures of a child
  • In the course of development they shape child experience of relationships in the social environment - his inner position in respect to the others
• Death drive


  Has major influence on the development of psyche of a child - from the birth infant uses splitting as main Ego defense mechanism to protect from the fear of annihilation caused by death drive
• Paranoid-schizoid position


  • develops in the beggining
  • Infant perceives himself as solely good object and projects all his negative emotions (anger, envy, sadism) onto external bad object, usually mother or her representative breast
  • His own discontent because of hunger or fear he perceives as aggression of external object, threatening to annihilate him
• Splitting

  • Immature Ego uses it to separate good mother (providing pleasant experience) from the bad (denying satisfaction, causing anxiety) by dividing one person into two partial objects
  • It's a representational model of a world (internal and external) and objects inhibiting it, which simplifies and distorts reality by dividing everything and everyone into good or bad
• Depressive position


  • Child realizes that frustrating bad mother and nurturing, comforting good mother are the same person, previously separated good and bad mother representations are integrated into one full object
  • Child also realizes that he himself has aggressive and angry feelings towards mother and begins to fear that they can destroy her
  • Emerges feeling of guilt, fear of own aggression, child psyche is dominated by this more mature, less reality and relationships distorting psychic functional state
• Narcissism


  • Important developmental line of identity for every person - formation of self-esteem, positive perception of oneself and others
  • Develops from infancy in relationships with parental figures - self-objects
  • Child needs to get admiration of parents - idealizing mirroring, possibility to idealize, admire parents, family; being part of it child can feel similarly excellent, possibility to feel equal, recognized in relationships with parents and latter in life with peers
  • Severe frustration of these needs lead to deficits in formation and function of narcissism and Ego, Super-ego
  • It leads to narcissistic psychopathology, caused by constant discontent with oneself (e.g. depression, anorexia nervosa) or pathological compensation (e.g. histrionic or antisocial personality disorder)
• Interpersonal theory of development


  • Basic inherent human need is to create and to maintain relationships with other people
  • Infant needs mother from the birth to satisfy his basic biological and emotional needs as hunger, warmth, security, avoiding loneliness
  • This need has integrating tendency because it creates mutually pleasant relationship between people
• Fear


  • Emerges when a child is frightened by something, its' expression in crying evoke empathic reaction in mother - her behavior to calm down the child
  • Fear is provoked by specific threat and has integrating tendency for child-mother relationship as it stimulates mothers' empathy and mutual satisfaction when the child calms down
• Anxiety


  • More vaguely experienced emotional state arising from interpersonal relationships, not an inherent emotion
  • It is communicated to a child by mothers' reactions, behaviors though their mutual empathic relationship
  • Child perceives mothers' anxiety from the changes in her touches, tone of a voice, movements and experiences it as an intangible state of inner tension of his own
  • This state has disintegrating tendency, it disrupts a state of pleasant being together and stimulates security needs instead of mutual satisfaction
• Security operations and self-systems


  • Behavioral models that develop with growing maturity to allow child to decrease anxiety in relationships with mother
  • At the older age relationships with other people are getting bigger importance, need to experience satisfaction and avoid anxiety should be transferred into them
  • Security operations should become more diverse, effective
  • Prevailing self-systems, security operations used to control anxiety and interpersonal relationships to achieve satisfaction constitute the basis of personality
• Psychological disorders

  • Have an interpersonal origin and can be understood only with reference to the patient's social environment
  • If previous relationships were characterized by predominance of security needs and lack of mutual satisfaction, pathological security operations were developed and dominate current functioning
  • Age appropriate emotional and interpersonal needs can not be met because of pathologically increased anxiety
• Goal of psychotherapy

  • To improve a patients' relationships with others
  • Therapist serves as a participant observer, becoming part of an interpersonal relationship with the patient and providing the patient an opportunity to establish syntaxic communication with another human being
• Disturbance of oral stage


  Drinking, eating, biting
• Disturbance of the anal stage


  by proneness to make mess, waste money, or by obsessive cleanliness, parsimony
• Disturbances of the phallic stage


  proneness to promiscuous behavior, competitiveness with authorities
• reaction formation - desires an emerge in the opposite form: e.g. anorexia, submissiveness or self-defeating behavior, etc.