Research Methods

• Experimental method


  Manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to have an effect on the dependent variable (DV), which is measured and stated in results
• Types of experiments


  • Field
  • Laboratory
  • Quasi
  • Natural
• Aim


  A general statement made by the researcher which tells us what they plan on investigating, the purpose of their study
• Hypothesis


  A precise statement which clearly states the relationship between the variables being investigated
• Types of hypotheses


  • Directional
  • Non-directional
• Independent variable (IV)


  The aspect of the experiment which has been manipulated by the researcher or simply changes naturally to have an effect on the DV
• Dependent variable (DV)


  The aspect of the study which is measured by the researcher and has been caused by a change to the IV
• Operationalisation


  The act of a researcher clearly defining the variables in terms of how they are being measured
• Extraneous variables


  • Variables that are not the IV but affect the DV and do not vary systematically with the IV
• Confounding variables


  • Variables other than the IV which have an effect on the DV and do change systematically with the IV
• Demand characteristics


  Cues the researcher or the research situation may give which makes the participant feel like they can guess the aim of the investigation
• Investigator effects


  Unwanted influence from the researcher's behaviour, either conscious or unconscious, on the DV measured
• Randomisation


  The use of chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effects
• Standardisation


  Using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for every single participant
• Types of experimental design

  • Independent groups
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
• Pilot study


  A small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken
• Single-blind procedure


  A research method in which the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment
• Double-blind procedure


  A research procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenter knows who is receiving a particular treatment
• Control group/condition


  Sets a baseline whereby results from the experimental condition can be compared to
• Types of observational techniques

  • Naturalistic
  • Controlled
  • Overt
  • Covert
• Sampling is the process of selecting participants to take part in an investigation
• Sampling methods


  • Opportunity sampling
  • Random sampling
  • Systematic sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Volunteer sampling
• Naturalistic observation


  Watching and recording behaviour in the setting where it would normally take place
• Naturalistic observation


  • High ecological validity
  • High external validity as done in a natural environment
  • Low ecological validity if participants become aware that they are being watched
  • Replication can be difficult
  • Uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables are presented
• Controlled observation


  Watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment e.g. lab setting
• Controlled observation


  • Researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behaviour
  • There is more control over extraneous and confounding variables
  • Easy replication
  • More likely to be observing unnatural behaviour as takes place in an unnatural environment
  • Low mundane realism so low ecological validity
  • Demand characteristics presented
• Overt observation


  Participants are watched and their behaviour is recorded with them knowing they are being watched
• Overt observation


  • Ethically acceptable as informed consent is given
  • More likely to be recording unnatural behaviour as participants know they are being watched
  • Demand characteristics likely which reduces validity of findings
• Covert observation


  The participants are unaware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded
• Covert observation


  • Natural behaviour recorded hence high internal validity of results
  • Removes problem of participant reactivity
  • Ethical issues presented as no informed consent given
  • Could be invading the privacy of the participants
• Participant observation


  The researcher who is observing is part of the group that is being observed
• Participant observation


  • Can be more insightful which increases the validity of the findings
  • There's always the possibility that behaviour may change if the participants were to find out they are being watched
  • Researcher may lose objectivity as may start to identify too strongly with the participants
• Non-participant observation


  The researcher observes from a distance so is not part of the group being observed
• Non-participant observation


  • Researcher can be more objective as less likely to identify with participants since watching from outside of the group
  • Open to observer bias for example of stereotypes the observer is aware of
  • Researchers may lose some valuable insight
• Unstructured observation


  Continuous recording where the researcher writes everything they see during the observation
• Unstructured observation


  • More richness and depth of detail
  • Produces qualitative data which is more difficult to record & analyse
  • Greater risk of observer bias e.g. only record 'catch the eye' behaviours
• Structured observation


  The researcher quantifies what they are observing using predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods
• Structured observation


  • Easier as is more systematic
  • Quantitative data is collected which is easy to analyse and compare with other data
  • There is less risk of observer bias
  • Not much depth of detail
  • Difficult to achieve high inter observer reliability as filling the predetermined lists in is subjective
• Behavioural categories


  A target behaviour which is being observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable
• When forming a behavioural categories list, it is important to make sure that behaviours do not overlap with other behaviours, so very similar behaviours should not be listed e.g. grin and smile. They should be clearly operationalised.