Midterm

• The first diaspora involves the migration of people from the south and east of England primarily to North America and Australia. => American and Antipodean Englishes.
• The varieties of English spoken in modern North America and Australia are not identical with the English of their early colonizers, but have altered due to changing sociolinguistic contexts.

  Example: their vocabulary expanded through contact with the indigenous Indian, Aboriginal, or Maori populations in the lands which they colonized & incorporate Amerindian words.
• • 1607, the first permanent colonists arrived and settled in Jamestown, Virginia 
  • 1620, a group of Puritans on the ship Mayflower settled in Plymouth. 

  => because of different linguistic backgrounds, they brought certain different accents.  
• 17th century: English spread to the southern parts of America and the Caribbean as a result of the slave trade. Slaves were transported from West Africa and exchanged. The Englishes that developed among the slaves and between them and their captors were pidgin languages, and eventually developed into creoles at the next generation.
• 18th century: large scale immigration from North Ireland. After the Declaration of American Independence in 1776, many British settlers who had supported the British government left for Canada. 
• Australia: 

  • James Cook discovered Australia in 1770.
  • From then until the ending of transportation of 1852, convicts from Britain and Ireland were transported to Australia, and from the 1820s large numbers of free settlers began to arrive. => the result is dialect mixing. 
• New Zealand: 

  • New Zealand was first settled by European traders in the 1790s => mixture of dialects and subject to a strong Maori influence especially in terms of vocabulary.
• South Africa: 

  • Colonized by the Dutch => from 1822 English was declared the official language, it was also learnt as a second language by blacks. 
• Second diaspora took place during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
• West Africa is linked to the slave trade and development of pidgin and creole languages. English was employed as lingua franca both among the indigenous population and between these people and the British traders.
• • East Africa’s countries were extensively settled by British colonists from the 1850s => English played an important role in government, education and the law => six countries gained independence => English remains the official language.
• South Asia: English was introduced in the 18th century. 
• India: Macaulay Minute of 1835 introduced the English education system. => Hindi is the official language of India, English is an associate official language => Indianization.
• Taiwan, Japan and Korea considered the possibility of making English their official second language. 
• The second diaspora involves the colonization of Asia and Africa. => New Englishes
• ENL: English as a mother tongue: the language of those born and raised in countries where English is historically the first language to be spoken.
• Kachru: UK, USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as “the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English”.
• ESL: Language spoken in a large number of territories such as India,

  Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Singapore, which were once colonised by the English.
• EFL:

  • countries never colonised by the British
  • English serves little or no purpose within their own borders.
• ELF: Speakers of English as a Lingua Franca, who use English for

  intercultural communication, are the world’s largest English-using group.
• Who proposed Six provisos?

  McArthur
• Six provisos (1):

  • English standards and intelligibility vary between English as a Native Language (ENL) territories, making it risky to classify a territory as ENL.
  • English-based pidgins and creoles do not fit the tripartite model
  • Large groups of ENL speakers living in certain ESL/EFL territories
• Six provisos (2):

  • Large numbers of ESL/EFL speakers living in ENL settings as a result of recent immigration
  • The model did not account for the influence of English on other co-existing languages (code-mixing and code-switching)
  • prioritizes native users, implicitly considering them superior regardless of language proficiency
• Who proposed world map of English?

  Strevens
• Who proposed Three Circle model of World Englishes?

  Kachru
• Who proposed Circle of World English?

  McArthur
• Who proposed centripetal circles of international English?

  Modiano
• The center of McArthur's model is World Standard English
• Whose model is the most useful and influential model of the spread

  of English?

  Kachru
• The three circles in Kachru's model “represent the types of spread, the patterns of acquisition, and the functional allocation of English in diverse cultural contexts.
• The English spoken in the Inner Circle is said to be ‘norm-providing’, that in the Outer Circle ‘norm-developing’, and that in the Expanding Circle ‘norm-dependent’.
• Kachru's model: the ESL varieties of English have become institutionalised, serve country-internal functions, and are developing their own standards.
• Kachru's model: the EFL varieties are regarded as ‘performance’ varieties without any official status and therefore dependent on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
• Criticism of Kachru's model:

  • The model is based on geography and history rather than on the way speakers currently identify with and use English.
  • There is often a grey area between the Inner and Outer Circles
  • Approximately twenty countries are said to be in transition from EFL to ESL status.
  • Many World English speakers grow up bilingual or multilingual.
  • There is a difficulty in using the model to define speakers in terms of their proficiency in English.
  • A native speaker may have limited vocabulary and low grammatical competence while the reverse may be true of a non-native speaker.
• Criticisms of Kachru's model:

  • Even within the Inner Circle, countries differ in the amount of linguistic diversity they contain.
  • The term ‘Inner Circle’ implies that speakers from the ENL countries are central to the effort, whereas their worldwide influence is in fact in decline.
• Modiano’s circles of international English:

  (1) Proficient in international English

  (2) Native and foreign language proficiency

  (3) Learners who are not yet proficient in English

  (4) people who do not know English at all
• Criticism of Modiano's circles of International English:

  • It's unclear what's considered a "strong" accent that keeps you out of the center circle.
  • it's hard to define "proficient international English".
• Modiano's English as an International language:

  • Based on features common to all varieties (The Common Core)
  • Contain features that may become internationally common or fall into obscurity
  • Five other groups: natives, other local varieties, foreign varieties
• Graddol’s (2005) representation of community of English speakers with a range of proficiencies

  ● the ‘inner circle’: the group of highly proficient speakers of English – having ‘functional nativeness’ regardless of how they learned or use the language

  ● need to distinguish between proficiencies in English rather than a speaker’s bilingual status
• Differing views on ‘functional nativeness’

  • Kachru: the RANGE and DEPTH of a language in a society => use of English in a socienty
  • Graddol: proficiency level of speakers within the entire community of English speakers.