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• Moral development theory


  It emphasizes the gradual progress experienced by the individual who in turn can only realize his or her own status of personal development after passing through a lower level
• Pre-conventional level


  • The norms of morality are understood through physical pain and pleasure orientation
• Stages of moral development

  • Punishment-and-obedience
  • Instrumental-relativist mentality/Individualism
  • Interpersonal concordance
  • Law and order mentality
  • Social contract
  • Universal principles
• Reason is not enough in carrying out moral decisions
• Emotions


  Conscious mental reaction subjectively experienced as strong feeling usually directed toward a specific object and typically accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes in the body
• • Emotions are constitutive of being human on personal and collective levels
  • Emotions are momentary feelings; unsuitable to moral decision making
  • Emotions are unwilled and subjective; are fleeting feelings hence, there can hardly be accountability
• Philosophers convinced that emotions play crucial role in moral decision-making
• Blaise Pascal: 'The heart knows what the mind does not'
• Emotions should be guided by reason
• Emotions and reason principles

  • Emotions should be guided by reason
  • When moral claims could not be supported by reasonable arguments, then such claims would in no way resolve a moral issue
  • The neutral position (relativism) carried out by feelings implies a double standard
  • Emotions unaided by reason do away with critical analysis for objectivity, disconnecting ethics
• Animal passion is different from human rationality. Animals have instinctive tendencies, while humans control instinct with reason. Feelings maybe helpful but it should be guided by reason.
• The 7-step moral reasoning model


  1. State the problem

  2. Ascertain the facts

  3. Identify relevant facts

  4. Develop a list of options

  5. Test options

  6. Tentative choice

  7. Make a final decision
• Moral agent


  • Doer/Performer/Actor of moral value
  • Has the full accountability for his action. One cannot point at other reasons
  • Is capable of thinking what is good (or bad)
  • Possesses the virtues which do not develop overnight
• • Doing what is morally good (bad) is not sufficient to make the moral agent good (bad)
  • Intention or motivation before the act has been done should be investigated
• Virtues


  • Disposition, ability, or habit inclining man to think and act correctly to follow what is right and avoid what is evil
  • A highly regarded personality trait or aspect of character
  • Deeply held value by a person that intrinsically leads him or her to behave in a certain way
• Approaches to virtue ethics

  • Eudaimonism
  • Ethics of care
  • Agent-based theory
• The four cardinal virtues

  • Prudence
  • Justice
  • Fortitude
  • Temperance
• Charity


  • The mover, the mother and root of all virtues and the source of good will, kindness, mercy, and forgiveness
  • Supernatural virtue of loving God above all things and loving one's neighbour because of God
  • Gives unity and harmony to individual moral life and to the whole humanity
  • Helping the poor, the unfortunate, the underprivileged
• Justice


  • Giving what is due to others
  • Legal: Binding all men to do what is for the common good in accordance with the law
  • Distributive: Giving to each what is his due according to the principle of equality
• Agent-based theory (Michael Slote)

  • Uses the largest, most normal and most lauded virtues across time and culture (e.g. kindness and mercy)
  • Moves the burden of ethics to the inner life of the agent who performs those actions
• The four cardinal virtues

  • Prudence
  • Justice
  • Fortitude
  • Temperance
• Prudence


  Regulates the intellect to think of the right thing and to avoid evil
• Justice


  Regulates the will of giving what is due to others
• Fortitude


  Regulates weakness of character
• Temperance


  Voluntary self-restraint
• Charity


  • The mover, the mother and root of all virtues and the source of good will, kindness, mercy, and forgiveness
  • Supernatural virtue of loving God above all things and loving one's neighbour because of God
  • Gives unity and harmony to individual moral life and to the whole humanity
  • Helping the poor, the unfortunate, the underprivileged
• Types of justice


  • Legal
  • Distributive (community to individuals)
  • Commutative justice (between individuals)
  • Social justice
  • International justice
• Legal justice


  Binding all men to do what is for the common good in accordance with the law
• Distributive justice


  Directs the state to share out to the people benefits and offices according to the merits and capabilities
• Commutative justice


  Duty of one individual to give what is due to another
• Social justice


  Directs individuals to give society its due and imposes the obligation to assist those in need so that they too can live their life worthy of dignity as persons
• International justice


  Common welfare of all nations, main duties are preservation of world peace, unity, and brotherhood
• Virtue-based morality


  The extent of excellence performed by an individual and as to where that individual is expected to function well
• The two great thinkers espoused a virtue-based moral system: Aristotle & St. Thomas Aquinas
• Aristotelian virtue ethics


  • Teleological and eudaiministic
  • "Telos" is a Latin term for "end" which mean a product which the agent seeks to make or an action that is to be done or accomplished
  • Human beings have the natural inclination to pursue an end which is happiness
  • In Aristotle's society, students are trained to acquire moral knowledge and skills
• Aristotelian virtue ethics (social)


  • Teachers and social political institutions, ensure the cultivation of moral disposition in their young citizens
  • Two realms of social affair: intellectual reals (education of young citizens) and socio-political realm (provides the education)
  • Reassure the honing of the two-fold virtues to human excellence (intellectual virtue, courage)
• Aristotelian virtue ethics (moral education)


  • Moral education or ethical instruction is the key in fostering good habits (virtues) and discouraging bad habits (vices)
  • Doctrine of the mean
• Happiness as a virtue (Aristotle)


  • Anything good makes a human happy
  • Aristotle believes in happiness that is pursued with pleasure
  • Pleasure or happiness is the end goal of human act
  • Lasting enjoyment experienced by higher beings
• Happiness as a virtue (Aristotle on human beings)

  • Human beings enjoy higher pleasures guided by higher faculty (rationality)
  • Lower form of animals enjoy lower pleasures directed by lower faculties (appetites)
  • Human beings who heed to lower appetitive tendencies experience the same lower pleasures as that of animals
  • Aristotle asserts that there can hardly be happiness without virtue
• St. Thomas Aquinas on natural law


  • Doctor of the Roman Catholic church, theologian, philosopher
  • Regarded as a pillar in theological approach called Thomism as well as pillar of philosophical movement known as Scholasticism
  • Puts forward that there is within us a conscience directing our moral thinking
  • This sense of right and wrong must be informed, guided, and grounded on morality