Parasocial relationships

• Parasocial relationships are one-sided relationships where one person expends considerable emotional energy and interest and feels very close to the other person. The relationship is not reciprocal as the other person (usually a celebrity) is unaware of the existence of the relationship. Television and the Internet can give the viewer the illusion of having a face-to-face relationship with a celebrity.
• Attachment Theory


  Explanation of Parasocial Relationships
• Bowlby's attachment theory

  • Early difficulties in attachment may lead to difficulties forming successful relationships later in life
  • Preference for parasocial relationships to replace real romantic relationships as parasocial relationships do not have the same ability to cause further emotional distress
• Attachment theory of parasocial relationships

  Particular attachment styles form parasocial relationships in adolescence and adulthood because of attachment difficulties in early childhood
• Insecure-resistant attachment style


  • More likely to engage with parasocial relationships because they need to have unfulfilled needs met and are too afraid of the disappointment that are a part of real-life relationships
• Ainsworth's Strange Situation

  1. Insecure resistant attachment children showed extreme separation anxiety, clingy behaviour and little willingness to explore

  2. In a parasocial relationship these attachment behaviours will be shown by the individual

  3. Dismissal of a celebrity figure from a television series can create separation anxiety such as sadness and anger
• Insecure resistant children


  • Tended to fall in love easily, demonstrated jealousy and worried that their partners might abandon them
  • Parasocial relationships allow these individuals to experience intense celebrity worship and engage in a fantasy about the perfect relationship, without the heartbreak and fear of rejection
• Attachment theory of parasocial relationships


  Theory that there is a link between childhood attachments and parasocial relationships
• Research support for attachment theory

  • Conducted by Roberts (2007)
  • Found link between childhood attachments and parasocial relationships
• Roberts' study

  1. Asked 200 undergraduate students to complete attachment styles questionnaire

  2. Asked students to complete self-report scale measuring frequency of attempts to contact a favourite celebrity
• Preoccupied attached individuals (insecure resistant type)

  Positively correlated with frequently contacting celebrities
• Individuals who made the greatest number of attempts to contact a celebrity were the most likely to have higher scores on preoccupied attachment type (insecure resistant)
• These findings are consistent with predictions drawn from the attachment theory explaining why parasocial relationships occur
• An issue with the attachment theory in explaining parasocial relationships is that there is strong contradictory evidence
• McCutcheon et al. (2006)


  Measured attachment types and celebrity related attitudes (CAS) in 229 participants
• Attachment security did not affect the likelihood of forming a parasocial relationship with a celebrity
• Participants with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships with celebrities that participants with secure attachments
• These findings refute the central prediction of the attachment theory
• Using attachment theory to explain parasocial relationships has little predictive strength
• This is a limitation of using attachment theory to explain parasocial relationships
• Attachment theory


  • Can explain why people all over the world have a desire to form parasocial relationships
• Contrasting cultures

  • Kuwait (collectivist)
  • USA (individualistic)
• People with an insecure attachment type


  Were the most likely to form intense parasocial relationships with TV personalities and characters (e.g. Rachel from Friends)
• This was true in both types of culture (collectivist and individualistic)
• The reason for forming a parasocial relationship is independent of cultural influences
• Attachment type may be a universal explanation for the need to form parasocial relationships
• Absorption Addiction Model


  Suggests that people pursue parasocial relationships to compensate for deficiencies within their real life
• Reasons for pursuing parasocial relationships

  • Difficulty in forming intimate relationships
  • Poor psychological functioning
  • Lack of identity
• Absorption

  1. Individuals focus their attention on the celebrity

  2. Finding out everything they can about them

  3. Becoming preoccupied with them

  4. Begin to identify with them
• Sense of fulfillment

  Motivates them to become intensely attached to the celebrity
• Addiction


  1. Sense of fulfillment becomes all consuming

  2. Seeks ever greater involvement with the celebrity

  3. Needs to sustain commitment to the relationship

  4. Feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity
• Extreme behaviours


  • Stalking
  • Delusional thinking (e.g. that the celebrity loves them)
• Parasocial relationships


  Relationships that a person may experience with a celebrity
• Levels of parasocial relationships

  • Entertainment-Social
  • Intense-Personal
  • Borderline Pathological
• Entertainment-Social


  • The least intense level
  • Person keeps up with celebrity and finds out information for entertainment and social interaction
  • Most people engage in parasocial relationships at this level
• Intense-Personal

  • The intermediate level
  • Person has private obsessions and feelings of personal connection for the celebrity
  • They have an intense interest in the celebrity's personal life
• Intense-Personal

  • Referring to a celebrity as a 'soul-mate'
  • Being obsessed with every little detail of a favourite celebrity's lifestyle
• Borderline Pathological

  • The strongest level
  • Person has over-identified with the celebrity and their fantasies and behaviour may have become uncontrollable and extreme
  • They may engage in illegal activities such as stalking and spend large sums of money to obtain memorabilia
  • They may believe their feelings would be reciprocated if they met the celebrity
• Absorption stage of the Absorption Addiction Model


  Person is engaging in the Intense-Personal level of parasocial relationships
• Addiction stage of the Absorption Addiction Model


  Person is engaging in the Borderline Pathological level of parasocial relationships