biology 2

• Human Anatomy Systems


  • Skeletal
  • Muscular
  • Digestive
  • Respiratory
  • Circulatory
  • Nervous
  • Reproductive
  • Endocrine
  • Excretory
• Biogeochemical Cycle


  Ways in which an element or compound moves between living and nonliving forms and locations in the biosphere
• Biogeochemical Cycles

  • Energy flows, but matter is recycled
• Water Cycle


  1. Involves state changes in water and physical movement of water through and between ecosystems

  2. Driven by solar energy

  
• Carbon Cycle


  Involves two interconnected subcycles: Biological carbon cycle (rapid carbon exchange among living organisms) and Geological carbon cycle (long-term cycling of carbon through geologic processes)

  
• Nitrogen Cycle


  1. Nitrogen is a common limiting nutrient

  2. Fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorus can result in algae blooms (eutrophication)

  
• Phosphorus Cycle


  1. Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient in aquatic ecosystems

  2. Cycle is slow

  3. Most phosphorus exists as phosphate ion PO4³⁻
• Chromosomes


  Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting one set from mother and one set from father
• Gregor Mendel


  Formulated a theory of inheritance based on experiments with garden peas
• Mendel's Law of Segregation


  • Genes have alternative forms (alleles) which account for variations
  • Dominant allele determines appearance, recessive allele has no noticeable effect
  • In diploid organisms, two alleles of a gene segregate during meiosis and gamete formation

  
• Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment


  • The pair of alleles for a given gene segregates into gametes independently of the pair of alleles for any other gene

  
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)


  The genetic material, a double helix with two antiparallel sugar-phosphate chains and nitrogenous bases projecting to the interior

  
• DNA Replication


  Semiconservative - the parental molecule unwinds and each strand serves as a template for a new strand

  
• Chromosome


  Consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins: DNA → Histones → Nucleosomes → 30-nm fiber → Looped domains → Metaphase chromosome

  
• Central Dogma


  Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA towards protein formation

  
• Transcription


  Synthesis of RNA complementary to a DNA template strand, forming messenger RNA (mRNA)

  
• Translation


  Synthesis of a polypeptide using the information in the mRNA, involving a change from the language of nucleotides to that of amino acids

  
• Taxonomy


  Characterization, identification, and classification of living organisms based on kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species

  
• The Five Kingdoms


  • Monera
  • Protista
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Animalia
• Ecological Hierarchy


  • Organism
  • Population
  • Community
  • Ecosystem
  • Landscape
  • Biome
  • Biosphere
• Biological Interactions


  • Commensalism
  • Amensalism
  • Mutualism
  • Competition
• Biotic components


  Living organisms
• Abiotic components


  Nonliving factors such as climate, soil, water, air, light, minerals, and others
• Landscape


  Interaction between ecosystems within a region
• Biome


  Consists of all communities present in a large geographical area
• Biosphere


  Total sum of all ecosystems, known as the zone life of Earth, that pertains to all living organisms and their interaction with the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
• Habitat


  The natural environment in which an organism lives
• Niche


  The role an organism plays in its ecosystem
• Commensalism


  • One species is benefited and other is neither benefited nor harmed
• Amensalism


  • One species is harmed and other remains unaffected
• Mutualism


  • Two organisms interact together for the benefit of both the species
• Competition


  • Two species competing for the same resources and fitness of one species is affected by the presence of another species
• Predation


  • Relationship of prey and predator
• Parasitism


  • The relationship between the host and a parasite, where the parasite gets benefited by the host. The host may remain unaffected or harmed
• Organ Systems


  • Digestive
  • Circulatory
  • Respiratory
  • Immune and Lymphatic
  • Excretory
  • Endocrine
  • Reproductive
  • Nervous
  • Integumentary
  • Skeletal
  • Muscular
• Digestive System


  Food Processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
• Circulatory System


  Internal Distribution of Materials
• Respiratory System


  Gas exchange (uptake of oxygen; disposal of carbon dioxide)
• Immune and Lymphatic System


  Body Defense (fighting infections and cancer)
• Excretory System


  Disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood