EXAM PREP LECTURE 8

• Language


  Communication system that relies on patterns and rules of symbols
• Language Levels


  • Phonemes
  • Morphemes
  • Syntax
  • Extralinguistic information
• Phonemes


  • Smallest units of sound
  • English contains 40-45
  • 100s of phonemes
• Morphemes


  • Smallest units of meaning
  • Combination of phonemes
  • Re-, -ed, -ing
  • Play, replay, played, playing
• Syntax


  • Set of rules to construct sentences
  • English: Subject-Verb-Object: "The boy eats the apple"
• Extralinguistic information


  • Non-verbal and context cues that add meaning to language
  • Visual body cues
  • Voice tone
  • Context
  • Regional differences
• Dialect


  Language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background
• Language development views


  • B.F Skinner: language learned through operant condition
  • Noam Chomsky: language is biologically determined
• Language acquisition device


  Biologically determined language development
• Critical period


  Language development is maximized early in life
• Language development stages


  1. Prenatal

  2. Preference for mother's voice

  3. Babbling stage-6 months

  4. Produce and repeat single syllabi

  5. Comprehension vs. Production

  6. First words 1 year to 18 months

  7. Holophrases: single-word phrase conveying full thought

  8. Telegraphic speech - 2 years

  9. Simple sentences

  10. Over generalization

  11. Conversations-4-6 years

  12. Clear understanding of rules (grammar and syntax)
• Sapir:Whorf hypothesis


  Language determines or influences thoughts and behaviours
• Hard to test Sapir:Whorf hypothesis - confound culture and language
• Can't randomly assign to test Sapir:Whorf hypothesis
• Cognitive Economy is resources allocated to thinking and decision making
• Heuristics


  Mental shortcuts to simplify decisions
• Heuristics can lead to oversimplification
• System 1 thinking


  • Fast and Automatic
  • Fast, snap judgements/autopilot
  • Requires less energy
  • Quick reactions
  • First impressions
  • Simple associations
• System 2 thinking


  • Slow and Analytical
  • Requires energy and effort
  • Focused searching
  • Evaluating arguments
  • Looking for mistakes
  • Staying calm and collected when mad
• System 1 and System 2 thinking must work together
• Availability Heuristic


  • We estimate likelihood of occurrence based on how "available" information is to us
  • We think something is common because it comes to mind easily
  • Perceived importance of an issue related with the ease of memory retrieval
• Hindsight Bias


  • Overestimating how well we would have predicted something after it occurred
  • "Hindsight is 20/20"... "I knew it all along!"
  • "Hindsight bias makes surprises vanish"
• Obstacles to problem solving

  • Distraction by irrelevant information
  • Failure to focus on the important stuff
  • Mental sets
  • Functional fixedness
• Strategies for problem solving

  • Trial and error
  • Algorithm
  • Divide and conquer
  • Insight
  • Means-end analysis
• Trial and error


  Continue to try different solutions until problem is solved
• Algorithm


  • Step by step problem solving formula
  • Recipe or set of instructions
  • Serial (one step after the next)
• Divide and conquer


  • Break down large complex problems into smaller more manageable problems
  • Recursive - apply same approach for each division
• Insight


  • The sudden recognition of a solution to a problem
  • The "A-hal" Moment
• Means-end analysis


  • Choose and modifying actions in a series of smaller steps to meet a larger known goal
  • Type of Divide & Conquer
  • More flexible than D&C
  • Different approaches for each subgoal
• The way that problems are presented, or framed, can influence how you approach and think about problem solving