Cognition and Development

• what was Piagets theory of cognitive development?

  - one of the most influential developmental psychologists of the 20th century

  - developed his theories through studying his own children

  - was the fist the realise that children do not just know less than adults, but instead think in a completely different way

  - led to him dividing childhood into stages characterised by certain cognitive abilities

  - his theory of cognitive development is concerned with the role of motivation in development and how knowledge develops
• what is the role of schemas?

  - a package of beliefs and expectations on a topic that come from prior experience

  - our representations of the world -- gets more complex as we develop through experience

  - they are useful by helping us to take shortcuts in thinking, and organise and interpret information

  - born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours

  - me schema constructed early in infancy - knowledge about oneself
• how do we build out schema?

  learning is just adapting our schema to a new situation so we can understand it

  - assimilation : we add more information to our schema that we did not previously have before. Fits into current schema

  - accommodation : having to adapt or change schema as a result of dramatically new information
• why do we build our schema?

  - we are pushed to learn when in ate of disequilibrium - our existing schema does not help us to decode an unfamiliar object / situation (uncomfortable feeling)

  - we then have to adapt to new situation by developing our understanding and schema - equilibration
• what research support is there for Piagets theory?

  - Howe studied children aged 9-12 who were put into groups of four to investigate the movement of objects down the slope

  - she found that all students improved their understanding but left the task with very different levels of understanding + reached different conclusions

  - supports Piagets idea that all children will form unique representations of the world even when having similar environments, due to having their own unique schema
• what is contradictory evidence for Piagets theory?

  - Lazonder and Harmsen review found that discovery learning is only useful when there was considerable input from teachers

  - this is important because if students require significant input in order to be able to learn, this is not true discovery learning
• how is real life application a strength of Piagets theory?


  - revolutionised how schools approach teaching children new information

  - schools have now taken on the idea that children learn through active exploration of their environment and have largely discarded the old fashioned idea of teaching where students sit silently rote learning

  - instead the value of lots of engaging activities and learning through discovery has been recognised and implemented into most classrooms
• how is comparison with Vygotsky a limitation of Piagets theory?

  - Piaget underestimated the role that other people play in learning - saw it ultimately as an individual process and others are just sources of information

  - Vygotsky recognised that learning is a more social process that relies on the support of others - supportive evidence
• what are the stages of intellectual development?

  - Piagets theory that we develop our intellectual abilities through going sequentially through 4 stages

  - each stage characterised by different levels of reasoning ability (exact ages of stages differ)

  - each stage is characterised by gaining particular mental abilities
• what is the sensorimotor stage?

  - 0-2 years

  - focus on physical sensations

  - develop basic co-ordination of physical actions (go from working out how to more own body to moving other objects)

  - understands other people as separate objects

  - acquires basic language

  - understanding of object permanence - ability to understand an object still exists when out of sight (8 months)
• what is the pre-operational stage?

  - has language and is mobile

  - lacks reasoning so makes characteristic reasoning errors in three key areas :

  -- conservation

  -- egocentrism

  -- class-inclusion
• what are conservation errors in pre-operational stage?


  - mathematical understanding that quantity remains the same even when the appearance of the object changes

  - awareness of conservation of different types e.g. weight, liquid develops at different ages

  - cannot understand conservation in this stage
• what are egocentrism errors in pre-operational stage?


  - the ability to recognise that classes if objects have subcategories - an advanced categorisation skills

  - Piaget and Inhelder - three mountains task to show evidence of egocentricism : they were unable to describe what the doll would see (instead detailing what they see) even when they had previously seen from dolls angle

  - unable to decanter
• what are class-inclusion errors in pre-operational stage?


  - the ability to recognise that classes of objects have subcategories - an advanced categorisation skill

  - children in pre-operational stage cannot recognise things fall into classes

  - cannot generally shows class inclusion - they are able to place things in more than one class simultaneously

  - Piaget and Inhelder - 7-8 year olds ''are there more dogs or animals?'' they responded with dogs (there were 5 dogs and 2 cats)
• what is the stage of concrete operations?

  - 7-11 years

  - can perform conservation and class inclusion tasks

  - improved reasoning abilities when eternally verifiable -- concrete operations

  - still struggle with abstract ideas or imagine objects/ situations they cannot see
• what is the stage of formal operations?


  - 11+ years

  - become capable of formal reasoning - can reason through the form of an argument rather than being distracted by content

  - can reason through things in a scientific way and test out hypotheses (measured using pendulum test)

  - can reason through abstract ideas e.g. tested through syllogisms
• how is Piagets stages domain-general?

  - intellectual development seen as singular process : all aspects of cognition develop at the same time together (language, reasoning, egocentricism-perception etc)

  - mostly this is our (why school systems work - teaching whole curriculum based on age)

  - people with ASD may develop these abilities separately (domain specific) and have deficits in 1 area e.g. often highly egocentric but have normal language development
• what is contradictory research for conservation?

  - McGarrigle and Donaldson replicated conservation and had another condition where 'naughty teddy' came in and moved counters by accident

  - 72% gave correct answer showing they did have conservation abilities

  - when researcher moved counters themselves most children answered incorrectly

  - shows impact of researcher bias - children assume researcher wouldn't ask unless they had changed something so it was the way of questioning, not the task that led to the children's answers

  - suggests Piagets age of conservation is incorrect
• what is contradictory evidence for egocentrism?

  - Hughes used similar task to three mountains with intersecting walls, a boy and two police officers (more real life)

  - once familiar with task children age 3 1/2 able to put boy in position out of sight of 1 police officer 90% of the time

  - children age 4 able to put boy in position out of sight of 2 police officers 90% of the time

  - able to decentre much earlier than Piaget gave credit for when scenario is more sensible
• what is contradictory evidence for class-inclusion?

  - Siegler and Svetina found children can understand class inclusion. 100 5 year olds from Slovenia tested on 10 class inclusion tasks with explanation after each session

  - condition 1 : told more animals than dogs because 7 animals but 5 dogs

  - condition 2 : told more animals because dogs are a subcategory (true explanation)

  - scored improved significantly more for condition 2 -- showed real understanding of class inclusion

  - children <7 year olds can understand class inclusion - Piaget underestimated their abilities and the importance of others
• how is contradictory evidence for class inclusion counter argued?

  - core principles of pre-operational stage are unchallenged - just methodology was incorrect

  - all contradictory research is contradicting the age at which children develop these abilities, not the characteristics of the stage

  - explanation of incorrect ages : sample used (own children and professors children) highly intelligent sample so they are more likely to gain these abilities earlier
• what is Vygotsky's theory?

  - theory of cognitive development is a sociocultural approach

  - emphasised the importance of language and play in out development of cognitive thinking

  - learnt from more knowledgable others

  - knowledge 1st intermental --> intramental
• how do children learn using the zone of proximal development?


  - learning through interaction with more knowledgable others hugely important in cognitive development (social experienced)

  - able to reach much harder cognitive abilities with the help of more experienced others

  - zone of proximal development : gap between current level of development and what they have potential to understand through social interaction with MKOs

  - expert assistance allows child to cross ZPD to reach maximal understanding possible for developmental stage
• what is scaffolding?


  process of helping someone cross the ZPD through MKOs giving help to learners
• what is research support for ZPD?

  - Roazzi and Bryant : 4-5 year olds estimated number of sweets in box alone (condition 1) or with aid of older child (condition 2)

  - failed to give good estimate when working alone but when given prompts and direction from older child accurately estimated number of sweets (mastered task)

  - showed evidence of gap between current and prospective reasoning abilities that can be crossed with help of expert develop additional reasoning abilities -- ZPD valid
• how is real life application a strength?

  - highly influential in field of education - children learn faster and more complex information when scaffolded across. Importance of social interaction in learning (group work, peer tutoring, teachers, TAs)

  - real world value in teaching and applied in every classroom in the country

  - BUT role of social interaction may not be universal : in china students learn very effectively in large lecture style classrooms with little social interaction -- impossible if Vygotsky completely correct
• how does Baillargeon research knowledge of the physical world?

  - Piaget thought babies <8-9 months have little understanding of how the physical world around them works e.g. lack object permanence

  - could be that they do not follow object outside of visual field as do not have motor skills, or lack of attention

  - Baillargeon developed violation of expectation method to investigate infant understanding of physical world + prove understanding much younger than Piaget thought
• what is violation of expectation research?


  method of investigation that suggests if children have knowledge of physical world they will expect certain things to happen in possible/ impossible situations
• how is violation of expectation research carried out?

  - measured object permanence by comparing reactions (length of time watching) to expected / unexpected events

  - tests focus on object going in and out of sight :

  -- control : object behaves a person with object permanence would expect

  -- experimental : object behaves in 'impossible manner
• what was Baillargeon's and Grabers conclusion research?

  - 24 5-6 month olds shown tall / short rabbit pass through screen with window

  - possible : on average looked for 25.11 seconds

  - impossible : on average looked for 33.07 seconds
• what is other violation of expectation research?

  - containment : if an object is seen to enter a container it should still be there when container re-opened

  - support : an object should fall when no longer supported by horizontal surface

  - if pay more attention to impossible vs possible event they have a good understanding of the physical world including object permanence
• what is Baillargeon's theory of infant physical reasoning?


  - argues humans have innate physical reasoning system

  - physical reasoning system : hard wired basic understanding of physical world + ability to learn more details easily (pre-disposed to attend to new events that will enhance understanding of the physical world). Start primitive --> more sophisticated through experience

  - object persistence : an aspect of world we have innate basic understanding of - object remains in existence without altering significantly in structure

  - infants use object persistence to learn other categories of ways objects behave e.g. use object persistence to understand occlusion and so perform well in Baillargeon's VOE studies
• how is Baillargeon's theory better than Piagets?

  - overcomes Piagets methodological issues : Piaget assumed attention shifted away from object = lack of object permanence. But there is the confounding variable of attention span in young children (may have lost interest)

  - Baillargeon filmed how long they looked at a scene not stopping when they got distracted

  - removed 3rd factor variable -- increase internal validity of VOE method
• how is inferences a limitation?

  - conclusions inferred : we cannot talk to babies so we do not know rationale behind actions

  - is it actually showing object permanence? leap in logic from finding impossible scenario more interesting to it being due to understanding of object permanence and therefore finding it surprising

  - VOE method lacks validity
• how is cultural consistency a strength?

  - innate understanding of physical world - we all have it despite very different upbringings

  - Hasps + van Marle - everyone has basic understanding from birth of physical world e.g. gravity

  - universal reasoning supports concept of innate physical reasoning system
• how is lack of demand characteristics a strength?

  - babies are not aware they are being studied so they do not show demand characteristics
• what is social cognition?

  the mental processes underling human social interaction to enhance our understanding of a social situation and improve our social decision making
• what did Selman say about perspective taking?

  - Selman is interested in social perspective taking

  - social perspective taking be able to look at a social situation from another persons point of view and consider what other people are thinking

  - social perspective taking is a domain specific process in cognitive development
• what was perspective taking research?

  - Selman looked at how responses to the holly dilemma changes as they develop their social perspective taking abilities

  - procedure : 60 participants asked how Holly, friend + father felt in Holly social perspective taking scenario if she did climb the tree

  - findings : identified 5 levels of perspective taking that clearly correlated with age

  - conclusion : clear developmental sequence of social perspective taking
• what is the undifferentiated / egocentric perspective taking (stage 0) ?

  - 3-6 years old

  - can only view from their own perspective and dont recognise other people may have different perspectives