parts of the brain and nervous system

• Cognitive Neuroscience


  The field of study linking the brain and other aspects of the nervous system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to behavior

  
• Localization of Function


  Refers to the specific areas of the brain that control specific skills or behaviors
• Nervous System


  • The basis for our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world around us
  • We receive, process, and then respond to information from the environment
• Parts of the Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System - brain and spinal cord
  • Peripheral Nervous System - neurons that convey messages to and from the rest of the body
• Parts of the Autonomic Nervous System


  • Sympathetic - "fight or flight" response, activates the neurotransmitter noradrenaline
  • Parasympathetic - regulate resting responses such as heart rate, salivation, lacrimation (secreting tears), digestion, except sexual arousal. Acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter
  • Enteric Nervous System - controls the digestive system, connecting through the CNS and sympathetic nervous system
  • Somatic Nervous System - regulating the voluntary movements of the body as well as the reflexes
• Afferent nerves


  Send information to the brain and spinal cord, made of sensory neurons that inform the central nervous system about our five senses
• Efferent nerves


  Send information from the brain, contain motor neurons responsible for voluntary movements
• Parts of the Forebrain

  • Cerebral cortex - the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres that controls many of our thought processes
  • Basal ganglia - collections of neurons crucial to motor function
  • Limbic system - important to emotion, motivation, memory, and learning
  • Thalamus - relay station for all sensory information transmitted to the cerebral cortex
  • Hypothalamus - regulates behavior related to species survival, and is also active in regulating emotions and reactions to stress. It also plays a role in sleep, and is important for the functioning of the endocrine system
• Midbrain


  • Plays several important roles in sensory processing, motor control, and arousal
  • Reticular Activating System (RAS) or reticular formation - a network of neurons essential to the regulation of consciousness and vital functions
  • Brainstem - connects the forebrain to the spinal cord
• Parts of the Hindbrain


  • Medulla oblongata - controls heart activity and largely controls breathing, swallowing, and digestion
  • Pons - serves as a bridging function
  • Cerebellum - controls bodily coordination, balance, and muscle tone, as well as some aspects of memory involving procedure-related movements
• Cerebral Cortex


  • Plays an extremely important role in human cognition
  • Enables us to think
  • Forms the outer layer of the two halves of the brain—the left and right cerebral hemispheres

  
• Contralateral


  From one side to another
• Ipsilateral


  On the same side
• Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

  • Frontal Lobe - motor processing and higher thought processes
  • Temporal Lobe - somatosensory processing
  • Parietal Lobe - auditory processing, comprehending language, and retention of visual memories
  • Occipital Lobe - visual processing

  
• Pons


  Serves as a bridging function
• Cerebellum


  Controls bodily coordination, balance, and muscle tone, as well as some aspects of memory involving procedure-related movements
• Cerebral Cortex


  Plays an extremely important role in human cognition, enables us to think, forms the outer layer of the two halves of the brain—the left and right cerebral hemispheres

  
• Information Transmission


  • Contralateral - from one side to another
  • Ipsilateral - on the same side
• Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

  • Frontal Lobe
  • Temporal Lobe
  • Parietal Lobe
  • Occipital Lobe

  
• Frontal Lobe


  Involved in motor processing and higher thought processes

  
• Frontal Lobe Major Functions

  • Planning and decision-making
  • Problem-solving
  • Judgment and impulse control
  • Personality
  • Language production
  • Motor control
• Frontal Lobe Consequences of Damage

  • Impaired planning and organization
  • Difficulty with decision-making and problem-solving
  • Poor judgment and impulsivity
  • Personality changes, including apathy or disinhibition
  • Language difficulties, such as aphasia
  • Motor problems, including weakness, paralysis, or spasticity
• Temporal Lobe


  Involved in motor processing and higher thought processes
• Temporal Lobe Major Functions

  • Hearing and auditory processing
  • Memory (particularly long-term memory)
  • Language comprehension
  • Emotion processing and recognition
• Temporal Lobe Consequences of Damage

  • Hearing loss or tinnitus
  • Memory problems, including amnesia or difficulty forming new memories
  • Aphasia, affecting language comprehension and expression
  • Difficulty understanding emotions and recognizing facial expressions
  • Emotional disturbances, such as anxiety or depression
• Parietal Lobe


  Involved in auditory processing, comprehending language, and retention of visual memories

  
• Parietal Lobe Major Functions

  • Processing sensory information (touch, pain, temperature)
  • Spatial awareness and navigation
  • Visuospatial perception
  • Body awareness and motor control
• Parietal Lobe Consequences of Damage

  • Sensory deficits, including numbness, tingling, or pain
  • Difficulty with spatial tasks, such as getting lost or bumping into things
  • Problems with visually guided tasks, such as reading or writing
  • Neglect syndrome, ignoring one side of the body
  • Apraxia, difficulty performing learned motor skills
• Occipital Lobe


  Involved in visual processing
• Occipital Lobe Major Functions


  • Vision and visual processing
• Occipital Lobe Consequences of Damage


  • Vision loss or partial blindness
  • Visual hallucinations
  • Difficulty with visual tasks, such as reading or recognizing faces
• Neurons


  Transmit electrical signals from one location to another in the nervous system, have four basic parts: soma, dendrites, axon, and terminal buttons
• Synapse


  Serves as a juncture between the terminal buttons of one or more neurons and the dendrites (or sometimes the soma) of one or more other neurons, important in cognition, signal transmission occurs when the terminal buttons release one or more neurotransmitters
• Types of Neurotransmitters


  • Monoamine neurotransmitters
  • Amino-acid neurotransmitters
  • Neuropeptides
• Stroke


  Vascular disorder caused by a sudden disruption in the flow of blood to the brain, can lead to paralysis, pain, numbness, loss of speech, loss of language comprehension, impairments in thought processes, loss of movement in parts of the body, or other symptoms
• Types of Stroke


  • Ischemic stroke
  • Hemorrhagic stroke
• Symptoms of Stroke


  • Numbness or weakness in the face, arms, or legs (especially on one side of the body)
  • Confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding speech
  • Vision disturbances in one or both eyes
  • Dizziness, trouble walking, loss of balance or coordination
  • Severe headache with no known cause
• Brain Tumor


  Can affect cognitive functioning in very serious ways, can be primary (start in the brain) or secondary (start elsewhere in the body), can be benign or malignant
• Symptoms of Brain Tumor

  • Headaches (usually worse in the morning)
  • Nausea or vomiting
  • Changes in speech, vision, or hearing
  • Problems balancing or walking
  • Changes in mood, personality, or ability to concentrate
  • Problems with memory
  • Muscle jerking or twitching (seizures or convulsions)
  • Numbness or tingling in the arms or legs
• Head Injuries


  Closed-head injuries (skull remains intact but brain is damaged) and open-head injuries (skull is penetrated)