crime 3

• Line-ups


  Traditionally a line of around 6 individuals, including the suspect and a number of ‘foils

  Witnesses feel under pressure to choose someone therefore should Show potential suspects one at a time
• Identikits


  Producing an accurate image of someone to fit a witness’s description. Often produces a very strange looking picture. ⮚Reliant on memory (EWT) which we know can be extremely inaccurate.
• 1. Positive confrontation 


  Tell the suspect that all the evidence confirms that there is no doubt that s/he is guilty of the crime.

  Interrogator leaves room, returns with folder of evidence, stands directly in front of suspect and in a confident manner/tone of voice, confront the suspect.
• 2. Theme development


  Interrogator attempts to shift blame away from suspect to some other person/set of circumstances that prompted the suspect to commit the crime. E.g. You killed your partner but only after severe provocation.

  Themes can be changed to find one that the suspect is most responsive to. The aim is to find a moral justification for the crime that the suspect will accept and will thus confess
• 3. Handling denials


  Never allow the suspect to deny guilt as this makes it more difficult to get a confession.

  Watch for signals i.e. ‘Can I just say something?’ and then block their attempts to deny.
• 4. Overcoming objection

  Interrogator should not argue these objections but use them to develop the theme that the suspect still did it but this was out of character.
• 5. Procurement and retention of suspect’s attention


  After the objections have been put down or turned around to imply guilt, the suspect will often become withdrawn and quiet.

  The interrogator must re-engage their attention to direct them towards the theme and stop them from sitting and thinking about the potential punishment as this will reinforce their resolve to deny the crime.

  The interrogator should reinforce sincerity i.e. good eye contact, use of first name and should lean towards the suspect as this helps to hold their attention.
• 6.   Handling the suspect’s passive mood


  the suspect may appear defeated/passive as their denials and objections have been rejected.

  If the suspect cries at this point this is due to remorse and should be used to infer guilt and move towards confession.

  If they do not cry, the interrogator should reinforce sincerity and support (perhaps put a hand on their shoulder) to reinforce the theme that implies guilt.
• 7. Presenting an alternative question


  A question is posed with 2 alternatives for what happened – one is more socially acceptable than the other.

  The suspect is expected to choose the easier option but whichever is chosen, guilt is admitted.

  The question should be posed so that the suspect can agree simply by nodding their head or saying a few words.

  The question will then be followed up with supporting statements from the interrogator i.e. ‘You did this because …’
• 8.   Get the suspect to confess orally and to tell the full details of the crime

  ⮚Interrogator asks questions to elicit details and clarify points.

  9. audio or written confession
• Strengths of Reid's 9 steps


  -You already believe this person to be guilty as a result of initial interview so it benefits society as if it leads to a guilty plea, time and money is saved as a lengthy trial is unnecessary.

  -This can reduce anxiety and distress caused to victims and offer earlier closure on traumatic experiences.
• Weaknesses of Reid's steps


  -Often fails to identify innocent suspects and may lead to coerced, compliant, false confessions.-Reid responds that no innocent person would pass beyond stage 3.-However evidence suggests that false confessions do happen.-Factors shown to increase risk; very young, very old, low IQ, mental disorder, long interviews at night, stressed, anxious, ill, intoxicated, coercive tactics.
• Gudjonsson (2003)- coerced confessions


  1. The defendant:old/young/low IQ/mental health issues/highly suggestible

  2. those arrested suddenly/interrogated at night/long times are more likely to confess

  3. Mental/physical state: anxious/stressed/ill/intoxicated

  4. The interrogation: coercive/biased or leading interview tactics can encourage false confessions
• Kassin (2010)- false confessions


  1.Confirmation bias-interrogators only look for behaviours in a suspect that confirm their pre-existing expectations

  2. Age -adolescents are more compliant and suggestible than adults, their judgements may be poor and they may be more immature leading to impulsive behaviour
• Redlich (07) found that people with a mental illness reported a 22% lifetime false confession rate. Having a mental illness may make you more susceptible to giving a false confession
• Cognitive interview- Fisher + Geiselman

  1. context reinstatement-> recall info in same environment
  2. in-depth reporting-> tell story in own detail
  3. re-order narrative->recall story from different perspective
• Enhanced cognitive interview

  same 4 techniques as cog. interview but adds social aspect-> ensures to minimise distractions
• aims-> M+H


  review article of the evidence of the cognitive interview technique
• method-> M+H

  1. effectiveness of various components
  2. relationship between the CI and other interviewing methods eg standard or structured.
  3. different measures of memory performance and effect on research findings.
  4. interviewer variables and the effect of training quality on interviewer performance
• M+H


  College students interviewed using 1 of 3: context reinstatement, changing order or changing perspective
• findings-> M+H

  no significant differences found across groups but MILNE(1997) compared CI with each individual component finding CI procedure produced more recall leading M+H to conclude that context reinstatement to be most effective component
• findings-> M+H

  Change of perspective and reverse order aren't effective on their own but it's possible that combination of techniques id effective
• findings-> M+H

  CI effectiveness could be due to interviewers having training on other tehcniques.

  also may be more motivated than those with no training
• conclusions-> M+H

  • needs to be more research into CI
  • researchers need to establish appropriate comparison groups and suitable measures of memory