ethics

• Cultural Relativism


  The view that different cultures have different moral codes, and that there is no universal truth in ethics - only the various cultural codes
• "Different cultures have different moral codes": 'Often used as a key to understanding morality'
• Proponents of cultural relativism argue that there is not a universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes and nothing more
• Proponents of cultural relativism argue that customs cannot be judged as correct or incorrect
• Cultural relativism refutes ethnocentrism - the view that one's own code of ethics offers nothing special and is no better than that of another culture
• Cultural relativism challenges the ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truths
• Cultural relativism says there is no such thing as a universal truth or ethical standard that can be applied
• Conflicting approaches to cultural relativism

  • Moral realist - Try to examine the situation and context to discover the moral "facts"
  • Ethical relativist - Each culture is right unto itself, so practices would be morally permissible in some countries and morally wrong in the US
  • Ethical absolutists - There is a single moral truth in terms of which all cultures and individuals are to be judged
  • Pluralists - Try to find some middle ground (in some situations this practice may make sense, less judgmental)

  
• Different cultures have different moral codes, and what is right within one group may be abhorrent to another
• Examples of different moral codes between cultures

  • Treatment of the dead
  • Polygamy
  • Sharing of wives among Eskimos
  • Infanticide
• People often react to "strange or different" customs by labelling them as backward, uneducated, primitive, or heathen, and by discriminating or harassing those who practice them, or trying to convert them to "our" customs
• Ethnocentrism


  The belief that one's own culture and customs are superior to those of other cultures
• "The right way' is the way which the ancestors used and which has been handed down. The tradition is its own warrant. It is not held subject to verification by experience. The notion of right is in the folkways.": 'William Graham Sumner'
• This line of thought from Sumner has probably persuaded more people to be skeptical about ethics than any other single statement
• Ethical ideas in our society have changed over the years, such as views on divorce, living together, sex outside of marriage, interracial marriage, same-sex marriage, sex education, gambling, internet dating, women in the workforce, spanking/punishment of children, acceptance of cremation, animal welfare, and natural resource protection
• Claims of cultural relativists

  • Different societies have different moral codes
  • The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society
  • There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society's code as better than another
  • The moral code of our society offers nothing special
  • There is no universal truth in ethics
  • It is arrogant to judge the conduct of other societies - we should adopt an attitude of tolerance
• Cultural differences argument

  The argument that since different cultures have different moral codes, there are no objective truths in morality and right and wrong are only matters of opinion
• Advantages of cultural relativism

  • It seems to conform to what we are experiencing
  • It provides a basis for our own valuation by taking our culture as the standard
  • It teaches us to be tolerant of others from different cultures
  • Our culture's moral code is neither superior nor inferior to any other, but provides the standards appropriate and applicable to us
  • Not everybody can have access to universal principles
• Disadvantages of cultural relativism

  • It promotes a sense of inferiority, as we believe our culture is not superior to another
  • It renders us incapable of discerning about values we may wish to maintain, as we are forced to simply accept whatever our culture gives us
  • It keeps us from exploring whether there are values shared between cultures
  • It keeps us from comparing and judging, either positively or negatively, the valuations made by different cultures
• Lessons and insights on cultural relativism

  • Tolerance of customs and alternative practices
  • Fundamental values or principles may be similar across cultures
  • Open-mindedness in examining biases and prejudices
  • Danger of assuming absolute standards
  • Conviction of beliefs can lead to arrogance, excess and pride
• Cultural relativism


  The view that there are differences and norms among cultures
• Ethical relativism


  The view that there are no universal or objective standards of moral conduct, and that morals are relative to the individual or culture
• Subjectivism

  The view that there are no universal truths in ethics, just individual feelings, and that the morals of an individual cannot be wrong, just different
• Sayings associated with subjectivism

  • "Who am I to judge?"
  • "To each their own"
  • "Live and let live"
  • "You be you" or "You do you"
• Normative subjectivism


  The view that an act is morally right if, and only if, the person judging the action approves of it
• Meta-ethical subjectivism


  The view that normative ethical theories and moral judgments in general cannot be true, and that the purpose of moral judgment is to express one's feelings or voice one's commitments, not to report personal or social attitudes
• Pros of subjectivism

  • Preference - what one individual believes for themselves may not be right for others, allowing for more open-mindedness
  • Open-mindedness - we shouldn't assume that someone's perspective is based on some universally accepted objective standard and is better than other perspectives
• Cons of subjectivism

  • Ignores evidence - it seems that some ideas about right and wrong provide better evidence than others
  • No moral progress - to say someone has progressed morally contradicts the main point of subjectivism, that there are no universal standards of right and wrong
• Some attitudes are just how people feel and are neither right nor wrong
• Subjectivism


  The view that moral judgments are based on individual preferences rather than objective standards
• Objectivism


  The view that moral judgments are based on objective standards rather than individual preferences
• Psychological Egoism


  The concept that a person's self-interest always motivates their actions. It explains the reason for most human behaviour, but does not judge the morality of those actions.
• Psychological Egoism


  • It is a descriptive theory based on observations, not a prescriptive theory of how one should act
  • It claims that self-interest/selfishness is the motive behind every action, even altruistic ones

  
• Self-interested action


  • A motorist who stops to help someone who has broken down, motivated by the thought that they may need help one day
  • A person giving money to charity, motivated by impressing others, avoiding guilt, or seeking a good feeling
  • A soldier falling on a grenade to protect others, motivated by the hope of posthumous glory
• Ethical Egoism


  The concept that every human should be motivated by their self-interest. It is a normative or prescriptive theory, unlike psychological egoism.
• Ethical Egoism


  • It proposes that only actions benefitting the person should be considered ethical, rejecting altruism
  • It recommends self-interest as the ultimate motive for human actions, which are then identified as ethical, worthy and good
• Ethical Egoism


  • A company that wants to dispose of waste by dumping it into a river, prioritizing its own interests over the well-being of others
  • An individual investing in a company that serves their interests, even if the company's practices are harmful to the environment
• Utilitarianism


  An ethical philosophy that judges the morality of an action based on its consequences, emphasizing ends over means.
• Utilitarianism


  • It is normative or prescriptive, telling us how we ought to act, unlike the descriptive sciences
  • It says the result or consequence of an act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad
• Bentham's Utilitarianism


  • The great good we should seek is happiness (a hedonistic perspective)
  • Actions whose results increase happiness or diminish pain are good and have "utility"