Human health and disease

• Reproductive health


  Healthy reproductive organs with normal functions, including emotional and social aspects
• According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e., physical, emotional, behavioural and social
• India was amongst the first countries in the world to initiate action plans and programmes at a national level to attain total reproductive health as a social goal
• Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes

  1. Creating awareness among people

  2. Providing facilities and support for building up a reproductively healthy society
• Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes

  • Covering wider reproduction-related areas
  • Currently in operation
• Steps taken to create awareness


  1. Using audio-visual and print-media

  2. Parents, relatives, teachers and friends disseminating information

  3. Introduction of sex education in schools
• Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS, etc. would help people, especially those in the adolescent age group to lead a reproductively healthy life
• Educating people


  1. Fertile couples and those in marriageable age group about available birth control options

  2. Care of pregnant mothers, post-natal care of the mother and child

  3. Importance of breast feeding

  4. Equal opportunities for the male and the female child
• Awareness of problems due to uncontrolled population growth, social evils like sex-abuse and sex-related crimes, etc. need to be created to enable people to think and take up necessary steps to prevent them and thereby build up a socially responsible and healthy society
• Successful implementation of various action plans to attain reproductive health

  • Requires strong infrastructural facilities
  • Professional expertise
  • Material support
• Providing medical assistance and care

  For reproduction-related problems like pregnancy, delivery, STDs, abortions, contraception, menstrual problems, infertility, etc.
• Implementation of better techniques and new strategies from time to time are also required to provide more efficient care and assistance to people
• Statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex-determination to legally check increasing menace of female foeticides, massive child immunisation, etc. are some programmes that merit mention
• Saheli-a new oral contraceptive for the females-was developed by scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDR) in Lucknow, India
• Better awareness about sex related matters, increased number of medically assisted deliveries and better post-natal care leading to decreased maternal and infant mortality rates, increased number of couples with small families, better detection and cure of STDs and overall increased medical facilities for all sex-related problems, etc. all indicate improved reproductive health of the society
• Population stabilisation


  Measures taken to control rapid population growth
• The world population which was around 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900 rocketed to about 6 billion by 2000 and 7.2 billion in 2011. A similar trend was observed in India too
• A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR) as well as an increase in number of people in reproducible age are probable reasons for this population growth
• The government was forced to take up serious measures to check this population growth rate
• Measures taken to overcome population growth

  1. Motivating smaller families by using various contraceptive methods

  2. Statutory raising of marriageable age of the female to 18 years and that of males to 21 years

  3. Incentives given to couples with small families
• Contraceptive methods


  • Natural/Traditional
  • Barrier
  • IUDs
  • Oral contraceptives
  • Injectables
  • Implants
  • Surgical methods
• Natural methods


  Work on the principle of avoiding chances of ovum and sperms meeting
• Barrier methods


  Ovum and sperms are prevented from physically meeting with the help of barriers
• Barrier methods


  • Condoms
  • Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults
  • Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams
• Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)


  Devices inserted in the uterus to prevent conception
• Oral contraceptives


  Tablets containing small doses of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations, taken daily for 21 days
• Saheli-the new oral contraceptive for the females contains a non-steroidal preparation. It is a 'once a week' pill with very few side effects and high contraceptive value
• Progestogens


  Can be used by females as injections or implants under the skin
• Contraceptive method


  Administration of small doses of either progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations in the form of tablets, taken daily for 21 days with a 7 day gap
• Contraceptive pills


  • Inhibit ovulation and implantation
  • Alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent/retard entry of sperms
  • Very effective with lesser side effects
  • Well accepted by females
• Saheli


  A 'once a week' non-steroidal oral contraceptive for females with very few side effects and high contraceptive value
• Progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations


  • Can be used as injections or implants under the skin
  • Mode of action similar to pills
  • Effective periods are much longer
• Emergency contraceptives


  • Administration of progestogens, progestogen-estrogen combinations, or IUDs within 72 hours of coitus
  • Can be used to avoid possible pregnancy due to rape or casual unprotected intercourse
  • Very effective
• Surgical contraceptive methods (sterilisation)

  1. Vasectomy (tying and cutting of vas deferens)

  2. Tubectomy (tying and cutting of fallopian tubes)
• Surgical contraceptive methods are highly effective but have poor reversibility
• Selection and use of contraceptive methods should be done in consultation with qualified medical professionals
• Contraceptives are not regular requirements for reproductive health, they are practiced to prevent, delay or space pregnancy
• Widespread use of contraceptives have a significant role in checking uncontrolled population growth
• Possible side effects of contraceptives like nausea, abdominal pain, bleeding etc. should not be ignored
• Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) or Induced Abortion

  Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term