RAW

• Comparison

  • done to illustrate how people, things, places, events, situations, or even ideas are similar to each other
• Contrast

  • done to illustrate how people, things, places, events, situations, or ideas are different from each other
• A paragraph that shows comparison and contrast has a unifying idea or purpose. There must be a balance in such a way that there is an equal amount of information for each subject to avoid bias.
• Cause 


  states why something happens
• Effect


  what happens
• Cause-and-Effect Pattern


  helps the writer explain how an event or action leads to another
• Signal Words for Cause and Effect

  • as a result
  • accordingly
  • because of (this)
  • due to (this)
  • consequently
  • Hence/Therefore/Thus
• Cause to Effect


  In this pattern, the cause, which is either an event or action, is stated right at the beginning of a paragraph, followed by statements on its effects. This type of organization is best for explaining a single cause with multiple effects.
• Effect to Cause


  The effect is stated at the beginning of the text, followed by sentences and paragraphs that further explain the causes. This type of organization is best for presenting a single effect with different causes.
• Consecutive Cause and Effect


  In this type of organization, each cause has its corresponding effect, and they are tackled one by one in a few sentences or paragraphs. The writer explains each cause and effect completely before moving on to the next pair of cause and effect.
• Problem


  an unsatisfactory situation that causes troubles or difficulties that need to be solved
• Problem-Solution Pattern


  used to deal with topics that logically pose problems and present solutions
• Variations of the Problem-Solution Pattern

  • Problem-Solution
  • Problem-Cause-Solution
  • Problem-Process-Solution
• Problem-Solution 


  This is a pattern that has a straightforward approach. The problem is stated simply, and a possible solution is given.
• Problem-Cause-Solution


  In this pattern, the cause of the problem is identified and analyzed before a possible solution is presented.
• Process


  a series of actions or steps toward a specific end
• Instructive/Directive Process Analysis Text


  teaches readers steps that lead to a particular result
• Informative Process Analysis Text 


  explains how a certain process works
• Signal Words for Cause and Effect 


  as a result, accordingly, because of this, due to this, consequently, hence/therefore/thus
• Persuasive Writing 


  Idea and to do an action. Many writings such as critiques, reviews, reaction papers, editorials, proposals, advertisements, and brochures use different ways of persuasion to influence readers.
• Three common techniques in persuasive

  • Presenting Strong Evidence
  • Concrete, Relevant, Reasonable Example
  • Accurate, Current, and Balanced Information
• Modes of Persuasion

  • Ethos
  • Pathos
  • Logos
• The modes of persuasion were introduced by the Greek philosopher ​Aristotle ​(384 BCE–332 BCE) to teach his students how to convince their audience.
• Ethos


  is the appeal to ethics. It focuses on using the credibility of the writer to convince the audience.
• Pathos


  is the appeal to emotion. Human emotions such as sympathy, outrage, and sadness can be used to motivate readers.
• Logos


  ​is the appeal to logic and reason. It aims to be factual in its approach.
• Common Logical Fallacies

  • Ad Hominem
  • Faulty Cause and Effect
  • Either/Reasoning
  • Hasty Generalization
  • False Analogy
  • Circular Reasoning
• Ad Hominem 


  In this type of argument, the writer opposes the point made by attacking the person who makes them. Instead of discussing the issue, the writer calls the opponent names.
• Faulty Cause and Effect 


  Two events that happen sequentially are causally related. This argument is also called ​post hoc, ergo propter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”).
• Either/Reasoning 


  Does not recognize complexity. Often, those who use this in an argument oversimplify the problem and only provide two solutions or reasons for a problem.
• Hasty Generalization 


  This is the generalization or conclusion drawn based on little evidence or a piece of evidence that is not representative of the whole.
• False Analogy 


  but the comparison can confuse or mislead the audience, too. There may be more differences than similarities between the two ideas being compared, and one reason may apply to one but not the other.
• Circular Reasoning 


  It states the very thesis as its proof. Too often, the supporting details are merely rephrasing the statement.
• Frequently Used Sources of Information in Persuasive Writing

  • Facts
  • Statistics
  • Judgement
  • Testimony
• Facts


  These make an argument solid. They can be based on the findings of experts and studies or one’s own observation, experiment, or personal experience.
• Statistics

  This source of evidence can in fact be very persuasive because numbers do not lie. However, the numbers should be accurate, and the data should come from a reliable source.
• Judgement

  This refers to what the writer assumes about his or her topic given the facts. He or she may present facts first and then make judgments about those facts.
• Testimony 


  This has two types, namely the account of an eye witness and the expert’s opinion. Both types are considered valid and can make an argument convincing. The eyewitness account can provide important facts, while the judgment of the expert can further strengthen the argument.
• 2 types of Testimony

  • Account of an eye witness
  • Expert's Opinion
• 2 types of testimony

  account of an eye witness, expert's opinion