Atypical Gender Development

• Cisgender


  Someone's gender identity, their sense of being a man or a woman matches the sex that was assigned to them from birth
• 1. Atypical gender

  Any individual whose gender identity doesn't follow the typical male equals masculine female equals feminine pattern
• Examples of A-typical gender

  • Transgender
  • Non-binary
  • Gender fluid
  • Agender
• Gender dysphoria


  A clinical condition in the DSM 5 where there is a mismatch between gender identity and sex assigned at birth, resulting in significant psychological distress
• Not all people who would describe themselves as gender diverse experience gender dysphoria
• Explanations for A-typical gender development and gender dysphoria

  • Biological
  • Socio-psychological
• Brain sex theory

  • Areas of the brain like the hypothalamus in male to female transgender individuals being closer to the size of females than males
• Genetic theory


  • A variation in genes leads to a biological process that changes gender expression, like a gene that leads to changes in the hypothalamus or hormone levels
• Hormonal theory


  • The mother's hormone levels during pregnancy, like over-exposure to testosterone in female foetuses or under-exposure in male foetuses, can lead to changes in gendered behaviour
• Biological research evidence

  • Van Beijsterveldt's twin study showing 70% of variance in gender identity explained by genetics
  • Garcia-Falgueras' study showing transgender individuals had brain structure closer to biological females
  • Theisen's study linking genetic variations to how the infant brain processes oestrogen
• Behaviourist explanation


  • People's gendered behaviour is shaped by operant conditioning, with reinforcement and punishment of certain behaviours
• Social learning theory explanation

  • Children observe and model non-gender conforming role models, leading to cross-gendered behaviour through vicarious reinforcement
• Cognitive dual pathway theory

  • Children develop two sets of gender schemas - a typical set and a non-sex typed personal set, if the personal set overrides the typical set then gender dysphoria can develop
• Psychological research evidence

  • Drummond and Wallien's studies showing early childhood gender dysphoria is often temporary
  • Zucker's study linking gender dysphoria in boys to separation anxiety with mothers
• Some people with atypical gender development believe their identity is due to purely biological processes, while researchers should be aware of how they report findings to avoid stigma
• The change from 'gender identity disorder' to 'gender dysphoria' in the DSM-5 was an attempt by the scientific community to be more socially sensitive
• Biological and psychological processes likely work in combination, with genetic and hormonal factors predisposing some people to develop atypical gender identities, which then persist or not depending on social-psychological experiences
• What is the normal pathway of sex typed gender schema?

  Attitudinal pathway model
• Psychodynamic explanation

  Occurs when the child doesn't resolve the Oedipus complex