option c

• Atherosclerosis


  A hardening of the arteries due to accumulation of fat, cholesterol and other substances in the walls of the arteries, forming hard structures called plaques
• Atherosclerosis begins with

  Damage to the endothelium which is the thin layered cell in arteries
• Risk factors for atherosclerosis

  • High cholesterol
  • High blood pressure
  • Inflammation like from arthritis
  • Obesity or diabetes
  • Smoking
• More risk factors


  Higher the chance of atherosclerosis
• Risk factors for cardiovascular disease

  • Diabetes
  • High cholesterol (modifiable)
  • High blood pressure (modifiable)
  • Obesity (modifiable)
  • Physical inactivity (modifiable)
  • Age (non-modifiable)
  • Gender (non-modifiable)
  • Ethnicity (non-modifiable)
  • Family history (non-modifiable)
• Habits that increase susceptibility to cardiovascular disease

  • Smoking
  • Inactivity
  • Poor diet
• Obesity


  An excess of body fat to the point where health is endangered
• BMI


  Generic calculation of weight kg divided by height m
• BMI


  • Doesn't take into account the type of body mass e.g. bone density, muscle mass
  • Therefore not the best predictor for obesity
• Waist girth


  Probably more valid measurement for obesity
• Consequences of obesity


  • Cardiovascular disease and hypertension
  • Type 2 diabetes
  • Osteoarthritis
  • Respiratory problems
  • Cancers
• Reducing body's ability to use insulin to properly control blood sugar levels


  Major health consequence of obesity
• Osteoarthritis


  • Extra weight caused by large amounts of fat on your body puts pressure on joints which can eventually wear down and develop
• Respiratory problems


  • May induce risk with asthma but studies are mixed
  • Obstructive sleep apnea and obstructed airways also
• Some cancers


  • Link still unclear
  • Fat constantly spreading information and instructions to rest of body could affect cell growth, chemical reactions in cells and body's reproductive cycles
• Hypothalamus


  Part of brain that controls hunger
• Leptin


  A hormone your adipose tissue (body fat) releases that helps your body maintain your normal weight on a long-term basis by regulating hunger by providing the sensation of satiety
• Insulin


  Produced by the pancreas, tells the brain when you're full by inhibiting hunger when it enters the brain
• Ghrelin


  Hormone produced by your stomach that notifies our body that we need to eat
• Negative energy balance


  • Can lead to a decline in metabolism, decrease in bone mass, reduction in thyroid hormones, reduction in testosterone levels, inability to concentrate and a reduction in physical performance, leads to weight loss
• Positive energy balance


  • Leads to weight gain, plaque can build in arteries, the blood pressure in cholesterol in our body can increase, we can become insulin resistant and suffer from diabetes, we can increase our risk for certain cancers
• Increase in energy intake

  Larger body and therefore an increase in demand for energy intake to feed the new cells (whether they are muscle or fat)
• Decrease in energy intake

  Weight loss, which will result in a lower basal metabolic rate and a lower demand for energy intake
• Type 1 diabetes


  Autoimmune disorder resulting in the destruction of the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas, usually manifests in young people
• Type 2 diabetes


  Disease of insulin resistance, particularly in skeletal muscle, highly related to obesity and older age
• Risk factors for type 2 diabetes

  • Obesity
  • Poor diet particularly lots of saturated fat
  • Family history
  • Physical inactivity
• Type 2 diabetes treatment

  Diet and exercise, also oral medication and or insulin
• Health risks of diabetes

  • Blindness
  • Kidney disease
  • Nerve damage
  • Cardiovascular disease
• Bone density changes from birth to old age


  1. Bone density increases from birth to around 35-45 years of age

  2. Females typically achieve a lower peak bone density than males

  3. From this age onwards bone density decreases
• Osteoclasts


  Cells that break down older bone tissue
• Osteoblasts


  Cells that lay down new tissue to replace it
• How osteoblasts make new bone tissue

  Using minerals such as calcium and phosphate from the blood
• Hormones


  • Estrogen, growth hormone and testosterone help keep the number and activity of osteoblasts higher than osteoclasts, so that more bone is made than removed
• Physical forces and pressure during exercise

  • Help bones to grow stronger and denser
• Bone density


  The amount of bone minerals in your bones, and how porous they are
• Good bone health requires the bone to be structurally strong, with a dense network of bone tissue
• Osteoporosis


  A condition that leads to weakened bones, literally meaning porous bones
• Primary osteoporosis


  Usually related to older age as well as reduced amount of estrogen in women as they age
• Secondary osteoporosis


  Affects both children and adults, related to other diseases and conditions e.g. cancers, hormone problems, use of certain medications
• A person has a greater risk of either type if they don't develop enough bone mass when they are growing from childhood to adult hood