English 1st Half

• Modals


  A type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality, likelihood, ability, permission and obligation
• Function of modals


  Give more information about the function of the main verb that it governs
• Modals used to express

  • Permission
  • Obligation
  • Prohibition
• Can


  • Giving permission
  • Expressing ability
• Could


  • Asking permission
  • Giving suggestion
• May


  • Asking permission
  • Giving permission
• Must


  • Expressing a firm obligation or necessity
• Have to


  • Showing that a person is obliged to do something usually by an outside force
• Should


  • Stating urgency or necessity and that the speaker is using his own subjective view
• Ought to


  • Expressing recommendation or moral obligation, representing something as law or duty or regulation
• Can't


  • Suggesting something is against the rule, particularly when we don't make the rule
• Must not / Mustn't


  • Talking about what is not permitted, implying the prohibition is directly from the speaker
• Direct speech


  The message of the speaker conveyed or reported in their own actual words without any change. Also known as quoted speech, enclosed with quotation marks. Consists of an introductory part and quoted part separated by a comma.
• The objectives are to express permission, obligation, and prohibitions, and use an appropriate modal according to its function
• Indirect speech


  A report on what someone else said or wrote without using that person's exact words. Also known as reported speech. The statement in direct speech is changed to a that-clause with the word 'that' inserted after the verb.
• Changing direct to indirect speech (tenses of the verb)

  1. Simple present becomes simple past

  2. Simple past becomes past perfect

  3. Present progressive becomes past progressive

  4. Past progressive becomes past perfect progressive

  5. Present perfect becomes past perfect

  6. Past perfect has no change
• Changing direct to indirect speech (modal verbs)

  1. Will/shall becomes would/should

  2. Can becomes could

  3. May becomes might

  4. Must becomes must/had to
• Changing direct to indirect speech (time of the verb)

  1. am, is becomes was

  2. are becomes were

  3. can becomes could

  4. shall becomes should

  5. will becomes would

  6. may becomes might

  7. say becomes said

  8. ask becomes asked
• Logos


  A Greek word which means "logic". It is a literary device that can be defined as a statement, sentence, or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic.
• Changing direct to indirect speech (time and place indicators)

  1. now becomes then

  2. today becomes that day

  3. tonight becomes that night

  4. yesterday becomes the day before

  5. tomorrow becomes the following day

  6. last becomes before/previous

  7. ago becomes previously

  8. this becomes that

  9. these becomes those
• Inductive Reasoning


  The process of arriving at a conclusion based on a set of analyzed observations. A general conclusion is drawn from a specific fact or evidence. The process of going from observations to conclusions.
• Pronouns also change in direct to indirect speech
• Deductive Reasoning


  The process of coming up with a conclusion through the use of previously known facts. It is done by starting with the presentation of a generalization and then proceeds with the more specific cases to prove the presented point.