: SOCIAL STRUCTURE, LANGUAGE CONTACT AND LANGUAGE CHANGE

• Social Structure

  According to Trudgill, numerous studies have examined the connection between social variables and linguistic variance
• Language Contact

  Trudgill places a strong emphasis on how language contact affects language evolution. Speakers of various languages can borrow words, phrases, or grammatical structures from one another when they interact, resulting in the creation of new language forms or the modification of already-existing ones.
• Language Change


  Another area of study for Trudgill has been the documentation and justification of linguistic shift in diverse settings. The focus is on the social elements that shape language usage, such as identity formation, social status, and cultural changes that affect language norms and practices.
• Simplification


  1. Regularization of irregularities

  2. Increase in lexical/morphological transparency

  3. Reduction in syntagmatic redundancy, e.g. grammatical agreement
• Complexification


  1. Reverse of simplification processes

  2. Addition of morphological category
• Language in Isolation

  • Languages spoken in isolated communities can retain and potentially enhance their complexity, unlike languages with high contact which often undergo simplification
• In low-contact environments, four main categories of complexity can arise: growth of morphological categories, increase in syntagmatic redundancy, increase in morphological opacity, and increase in structural elaboration
• Growth of morphological categories

  • In certain Norfolk dialects of English, intransitive infinitives are marked with a unique "-y" ending, creating a new morphological category not present in the standard language
• Increase in syntagmatic redundancy

  • In Swiss German dialects, there is a greater occurrence of redundant prepositional phrases compared to Standard German, e.g. "and now he climbs up a tree trunk up"
• Close-knit communities place a higher value on shared understanding rather than efficient communication, allowing them to maintain redundant features in their language
• Isolated languages have the advantage of not being pressured to simplify, which allows them to maintain redundant features and increase in morphological opacity and structural elaboration
• In linguistic terms, there is a phenomenon known as an increase in morphological opacity
• Morphological opacity


  The connection between a word's form and its meaning becomes less clear and straightforward
• In the Norfolk dialect, there is a clear distinction between the placement of the third-person singular neuter pronoun before and after the verb
• Complexification 3: increase in morphological opacity


  • Recognizes the impact of sound changes on increasing complexity over time
  • Emphasizes the significance of internal language dynamics
• Internal Restructuring


  The intricate interplay of sound changes and internal dynamics, such as the Norfolk pronoun split, adds to the complexity and lack of transparency
• Group Identity Markers


  Within the speech community, certain characteristics serve as distinct markers of group identity
• Irregularization is the fascinating phenomenon where exceptions to well-established grammatical rules exist
• Irregularization


  Suggests that when languages are spoken in isolation, they have a higher tendency to develop irregular forms, as there is no external pressure to conform
• In Faroese linguistics, the noun declension system of olden times was a marvel to behold, boasting a multitude of irregular paradigms
• Modern Faroese has taken this complexity to a new level, with even verb conjugations exhibiting a higher degree of irregularity
• No Pressure to Conform

  Isolated languages, such as Faroese, have the unique advantage of not being subjected to external pressures to simplify, allowing for the flourishing of irregularities
• Internal Dynamics & Expression

  A fascinating interplay can give rise to unique irregularities, ultimately amplifying the overall expressive power
• Simplification occurs primarily in the high-contact community, where speakers may simplify their language to communicate more easily with non-native speakers or speakers of other languages
• Complexification frequently takes place in low-contact communities, where speakers might maintain or even improve language complexity as a symbol of their social standing or identity