Forensics

• Name the biological explanations of offending

  - atavistic form

  - Genetic and neural explanations
• Name the Italian surgeon responsible for the historical approach of offering

  Cesare Lombroso
• What is Lombroso often referred to as? Why?

  'The father of criminology' because he was one of the first scientists to attempt to study criminal behaviour using scientific methods of observation and measurement.
• Who did Lombroso record the physical and behavioural characteristics of?

  Over 4000 criminals (living and dead)
• When did Lombroso's study take place?

  Late 1800s
• What theory did Lombroso use his observations to propose?

  The 'atavistic form' to describe the characteristics of criminals
• What does atavistic refer to?


  The return to the characteristics of more primitive human species.
• Why did Lombroso argue that criminals are atavistic?

  They share physical and behavioural characteristics with more primitive human species.
• Lombroso proposed that criminality is a ...

  genetically inherited characteristic meaning some people are born criminals
• Name the six features of criminals identified by Lombroso


  1. Facial asymmetry

  2. A protruding chin

  3. Dark skin

  4. Tattoos

  5. Insensitivity to pain

  6. Being unemployed
• Evaluation of the atavistic form explanation of offending

  - Evidence from Goring

  - Interpretation of Goring's findings

  - Scientific racism

  - Deterministic

  - Influence
• Evidence from Goring (Evaluation of the atavistic form explanation of offending)

  - A British criminologist,Charles Goring(1913) measured a range of physical characteristics of 3000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals and reported them in ‘The English Convict: A Statistical Study’.- He concluded that there were no consistent differences between the physical features of criminals and non-criminals.
• Interpretation of Goring's findings (Evaluation of the atavistic form explanation of offending)

  - Goring's findings do not support Lombroso's theory of the atavistic form

  - This is because Goring found no consistent evidence that physical characteristics differed between criminals and non-criminals

  - Goring's findings might be considered more credible because he studied criminals and non-criminals, allowing him to draw conclusions of whether there were difference between the two groups
• Scientific racism (Evaluation of the atavistic form explanation of offending)

  - Lomboros's concept of the atavistic form is considered to be an example of scientific racism

  - Scientific racism occurs when researchers suggest there is evidence to support the inferiority of certain racial groups.

  - Lombroso's research is considered an example of scientific racism because he suggests that there is a link between the colour of a persons skin and criminal behaviour, proposing that people with darker skin are more likely to be criminals

  - The potential ethical implication of Lombroso's theory in Italian society at the time is that it could have led to discrimination towards people with darker skin from people with lighter skin
• Deterministic (Evaluation of the atavistic form explanation of offending)


  - The atavistic form is a deterministic explanation of criminal behaviour

  - This is because it suggests that criminal behaviour is caused by genetic factors which are outside of a persons control

  - Therefore, Lombroso's theory is an example of biological determinism

  - Deterministic explanations suggest that criminals are not personally responsible for their actions

  - However, deterministic explanations of crime do not fit in with the principles of the criminal justice system in most countries

  - This is because the criminal justice system holds people personally responsible for their actions
• Influence (Evaluation of the atavistic form explanation of offending)

  - Lombroso's research is seen as influential in establishing criminology as an independent scientific discipline.

  - Prior to his research, criminal behaviour was often explained as a moral weakness.

  - By studying criminals using what he regarded as scientific methods, Lombroso brought criminal behaviour under the remit of science.

  - For this reason, Lombroso is often referred to as 'the father of criminology'.

  - Therefore, while flawed, his initial research is likely to have stimulated further scientific research into criminal behaviour.
• What do biological explanations propose?

  That offending is caused by factors inside the body.
• What do genetic explanations of offending suggest?

  That a person's genes can make them more likely to commit crime.
• Is criminality likely to be a polygenic or monogenic trait? Explain

  Criminality is likely to be a polygenic trait meaning the probability that someone will commit crime is likely to be influenced by variations in many genes, rather than a single gene variant (allele).
• What has research investigating the link between specific genes and offending found is a gene linked to offending?

  The monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene is one gene which has been linked to offending.
• What function does the MAOA gene serve in the body?

  The MAOA gene creates an enzyme which breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters including dopamine and serotonin.
• What two abnormalities with the MAOA gene can disrupt its function?

  If a person has a low-activity allele (variant) of the MAOA gene or a mutated MAOA gene, this may lead to problems regulating the levels of monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain.
• Why might this lead to criminal behaviour?

  The neurochemical imbalance caused by an abnormality with the MAOA gene may result in poorer behavioural control leading to criminal behaviour.
• Evidence from Ferguson et al relating to genetic explanations of offending


  -Ferguson et al(2012) analysed the genetic and environmental influences of 400 males in New Zealand from birth to 30 years old.- They found that males with a low-activity allele of the MAOA gene and childhood adversity such as abuse or neglect were significantly more likely to report criminal offending by their early 20s.
• Evidence from Brunner et al relating to genetic explanations of offending


  -Brunner et al(1993) reported on a Dutch family where several of the males had committed violent crimes including rape and assault.- When the genes of the family were investigated, they discovered a mutation in the MAOA gene.
• What do neural explanations propose as a cause of offending?

  Neural explanations of criminal behaviour propose that abnormalities in the nervous system may cause offending.
• Several areas of the brain have been linked to criminal behaviour, name one

  The pre-frontal cortex
• What function(s) does the pre-frontal cortex control?

  This area of the frontal lobe is believed to be linked to the ability to resist impulsive behaviour.
• How might the pre-frontal cortex be connected to offending?

  Abnormal activity in this region of the brain may result in poorer behavioural control leading to criminal behaviour.
• Evidence from Bufkin relating to neural explanations of offending


  Bufkin et al(2005) summarised the findings from numerous brain scan studies of criminals. They concluded that there was consistent evidence of decreased activity in the pre-frontal cortex in criminals compared to non-criminals.
• Evaluation of biological explanations of offending

  - Interpretation of Ferguson's evidence

  - Limitations of Bufkin's evidence

  - Deterministic

  - Can biological explanations explain gender differences in offending?

  - Reductionist
• Interpretation of Ferguson's evidence (Evaluation of biological explanations of offending)

  - Ferguson's finding suggest that a low-activity allele of the MAOA gene is associated with criminal behaviour

  - However, Ferguson's finding does not suggest that a low-activity allele of the MAOA gene is sufficient to cause criminal behaviour

  - The low activity MAOA allele was only linked to criminal behaviour if the participant had also experienced an environmental factor; abuse or neglect in childhood

  - This supports the interactionist view on the nature-nurture debate as Ferguson suggested that criminal behaviour is caused by both nature (genetics: lower activity allele of the MAOA gene) and nurture (abuse or neglect in childhood).
• Limitations of Bufkin's evidence (Evaluation of biological explanations of offending)

  - One limitation of Bufkin's evidence for the neural explanation is that it is correlational

  - Correlational evidence cannot conclude a cause-and-effect relationship between variables

  - Hence it cannot be concluded that lower activity in the pre-frontal cortex causes offending

  - Lower activity in the pre-frontal cortex and offending may be caused by a third variable such as poverty
• Deterministic (Evaluation of biological explanations of offending)


  - Biological explanations of criminal behaviour are deterministic as they suggest that criminal behaviour is caused by genetics and lower brain activity in the pre-frontal cortex

  - These are factors which are not within a persons control

  - Hence deterministic explanations of criminal behaviour suggest that criminals are not personally responsible for their crimes

  - Therefore, deterministic explanations of crime are not compatible with the principles of the criminal justice system which holds people personally responsible for their actions
• Can biological explanations explain gender differences in offending? (Evaluation of biological explanations of offending)

  - In the UK, 95% of prisoners are male and 5% are female.

  - Biological explanations can potentially explain why males might be much more likely to commit crime than females

  - The genetic explanation of offending suggests that criminal behaviour is caused by a low activity allele or mutated MAOA gene

  - The MAOA gene is located on the X chromosome

  - Hence, males only have one version of the MAOA gene as the only have one X chromosome compared to females who have two X chromosomes and so two versions of the MAOA gene

  - This means that if a male has inherited a low activity allele or mutated MAOA gene they may have poor regulation of the levels of their monoamine transmitters whereas a female would still have a normally functioning variant so would not
• Reductionist (Evaluation of biological explanations of offending)

  - Biological explanations are reductionist.

  - The explanations imply that criminal behaviour can be understood by studying biological processes in the body.

  - Some psychologists regard a reductionist approach to criminology to be simplistic.

  - This is because the importance of psychological factors may be underestimated.

  - For example, there is evidence to support the importance of cognitive and social influences on criminal behaviour.

  - Studying only the biological factors linked to criminality may lead to an incomplete understanding of criminality.
• What does the psychodynamic explanation of offending propose?

  That offending stems from abnormal development in childhood.
• What did Freud argue leads to offending?

  Freud argued that abnormal development of the superego in childhood leads to offending.
• What is the superego?

  The superego is the structure of personality that is responsible for our morality.
• What is the superego highly influenced by?

  The morality of the same-sex parent.