PSTHE 2

• Philosophy of education


  • No education is ever neutral
  • Education is designed to maintain existing conditions
  • Each individual have, their own views and opinions about an issue, different form other
  • Education should be relevant
  • Important to the learner
  • Problem solving approach - People are thinking-being and capable of identifying problems, seeking solutions to problems and working out ways to change the situations
  • Education is a mutual learning process - Everyone can learn from others
  • Reflection and action are important in the learning cycle - Look, think, plan and do
• Learning


  • A process which brings about a change in the individual's way of responding as a result of practice or other experience
  • A relatively permanent change in behavior
  • A change in the human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to process of growth
  • Internal events that occur due to the interaction with the external environment
  • Knowing learning processes is important for planning and delivering instructions to ensure events of learning
• Events of learning


  1. External to learner - Stimulation such as written/spoken information

  2. Internal to learner - Essential to incident of learning, Change of state from not learned to learned, Includes 8 phases that outlines a series of events that constitutes a single act of learning
• Processes of learning and the influence of external events

  • Motivation - Expectancy
  • Apprehending - Attention, Selective Perception
  • Acquisition - Coding, Storage entry
  • Retention - Memory storage
  • Recall - Retrieval
  • Generalization - Transfer of learning
  • Performance - Responding
  • Feedback - Reinforcement
• Theories of learning


  • Behaviorism (Associative) - Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner
  • Cognitivism - Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne
• Behaviorist (Associative) view of learning

  Change in behavior
• Cognitivist view of learning


  Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception)
• Aspects of behaviorist and cognitivist theories

  • Locus of learning - Stimuli in external environment (behaviorist) vs Internal cognitive structuring (cognitivist)
  • Purpose in education - Produce behavioral change in desired direction (behaviorist) vs Develop capacity and skills to learn better (cognitivist)
  • Educator's role - Arranges environment to elicit desired response (behaviorist) vs Structures content of learning activity (cognitivist)
  • Manifestations in adult learning - Behavioral objectives, Competency-based education, Skill development and training (behaviorist) vs Cognitive development, Intelligence, learning and memory as function of age, Learning how to learn (cognitivist)
• Models of teaching


  The job of the teacher is to create the external environment that will engage the learners to continuously attend to the tasks or topics until they get into their long-term memory and generate a behavioral response
• Activities of teaching


  • Logical acts - Explaining, Concluding, Inferring, Giving reasons, Amassing evidence, Demonstrating, Defining, Comparing
  • Strategic acts - Motivating, Counseling, Evaluating, Planning, Encouraging, Disciplining, Questioning
  • Institutional acts - Collecting money, Chaperoning, Patrolling the hall, Attending meetings, Taking attendance, Consulting parents, Keeping reports
• Elements that assess and describe teaching models

  • Scenario of the model
  • Syntax - Presentation of data, then relating the concepts with the data
  • Social system - Roles that teachers and students will play, their relationship during the presentation and the norms that are encouraged in the model
  • Principles of reaction - Teachers are expected to shape behavior and impose sanctions on student committing undesired behavior at the same time rewards can also be given to those exhibiting the desired behavior
  • Support system - Additional requirements of the model
  • Application - Use of the model and type of instructional setting
  • Instructional and Nurturant - Instructional effects are those directly achieved by the learner, Nurturant is the indirect result of the model
• Linear thinking


  Thinking process proceeds in a sequential manner, like a straight line. Most people learn, think and express themselves in linear fashion. Reading starts at the left and proceeds straight across to the right.
• Flaws in linear thinking

  • There is only a linear approach to solving problems
  • Assumption that only rational or analytical mind states enable learning to occur
  • The idea that the aim of teaching is to impart a body of knowledge to a learner
• Limitations of linear approach

  • In the linear mode, a course developer must concentrate on each phase of activities as a separate set of tasks
  • This approach requires little understanding of how all the pieces fit together
  • With the focus of the course developer fixed on the immediate tasks, it is difficult to visualize impact, interdependence, and the final result
  • The course developer is seldom able to plan for handling contingencies and avoiding problems
• Geodesic thinking


  • Point-to-multipoint thinking, rather than linear cause-and-effect thing
  • Propose that there are many paths to learning something, just as there are many paths between 2 points on a sphere
• Aim of geodesic learning


  • Not to produce a look alike or carbon copies but to invoke the unique energy and gifts of each individual
  • The goal is the "big picture"
• Differences between linear and geodesic thinking

  • Training is concerned mainly with affecting external behavior (linear) vs Training is concerned with developing the whole person, externally and internally (geodesic)
  • Rational consciousness is the main path to knowledge, Other mind states are of no value for learning (linear) vs All minds states can contribute to learning and performance in an interrelated, synergistic way (geodesic)
  • People learn best in a sequential, one-thing-at-a-time manner (linear) vs People learn best when they are learning on many levels simultaneously (geodesic)
  • The aim of teaching is to fill an empty vessel (linear) vs The aim of teaching is to stimulate the mind and release the innate powers of the personality for learning and self-actualization (geodesic)
  • Competition enhances learning (linear) vs Cooperation enhances learning (geodesic)
  • Training is most effective when a tried-and-true uniform experience is provided for everyone (linear) vs Training is most effective when individual needs and styles are accommodated in a rich, flexible, multipath environment (geodesic)
  • Knowledge is static and fixed (linear) vs Knowledge is in constant flow and development (geodesic)
  • Learning is hard work, No pain, no gain (linear) vs Learning is accelerated when people approach a subject with curiosity, joy, and passion (geodesic)
  • The aim of teaching is to impart a body of useful knowledge to a learner (linear) vs The aim of teaching is to provide an occasion for a learner to develop a creative, interactive relationship with knowledge (geodesic)
• The aim of teaching

  To fill an empty vessel
• Competition


  • Enhances learning
• People learn best


  • When they are learning on many levels simultaneously
• The aim of teaching

  To stimulate the mind and release the innate powers of the personality for learning and self-actualization
• Cooperation


  • Enhances learning
• Linear Thinking


  Training is most effective when a tried-and-true uniform experience is provided for everyone
• Geodesic Thinking


  Training is most effective when individual needs and styles are accommodated in a rich, flexible, multipath environment
• Knowledge


  Is static and fixed
• Learning


  Is hard work. No pain, no gain
• The aim of teaching

  To impart a body of useful knowledge to a learner
• Knowledge


  Is in constant flow and development
• Learning


  Is accelerated when people approach a subject with curiosity, joy, and passion
• The aim of teaching

  To provide an occasion for a learner to develop a creative, interactive relationship with a body of knowledge
• Complete abandonment of structure and linear processing is not the answer
• It is not recommended that objectives be written before performing the training requirements such as analysis of needs or subject the materials to a field trial before completing an instructional design
• What is recommended is that in performing each activity always keeps in mind the goal and potential impact of that activity on other tasks
• Course Development


  Viewed as a system, a set of interrelated and interdependent elements (subsystems) functionally integrated into a working system to achieve some purpose
• Approaches to Teaching and Learning

  • Competency-based learning
  • Problem-based learning
  • Community based learning
  • Situated learning
  • Cognitive apprenticeship
  • Social learning
  • Distance learning
  • Evidence-based learning
  • Outcome-based learning
• Competency-Based Curriculum


  Focuses on essential, job-related knowledge and skills rather than just content and process
• Traditional curriculum is content and process oriented, producing passive learners
• Traditional curriculum graduates students based on accumulation of course credits rather than competencies
• Competency-Based Curriculum


  Focuses on the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that a professional should have to meet the needs of patients, community and society
• Competency-Based Curriculum


  • Produces graduates who are competent to practice in various settings, able to anticipate and cope with changes, cognizant of community needs, and willing to change in response to changes in the scientific foundations of their profession