Biology

• What are the types of pathogens that cause infectious diseases?


  Viruses, bacteria, protists, and fungi
• How do pathogens spread from one host to another?


  Through direct contact, water, or air
• What is the process by which bacteria multiply?


  Binary fission
• What happens to cells when viruses replicate inside them?


  The cells burst, releasing copies of the virus into the bloodstream
• What are the two types of structures that fungi can have?


  Single-celled or hyphae
• What is a common example of how pathogens are spread through air?

  Droplet infection from sneezing, coughing, or talking
• What are the methods to limit the spread of pathogens?


  • Improving hygiene (hand washing, disinfectants)
  • Reducing contact with infected individuals
  • Removing vectors (pesticides, habitat removal)
  • Vaccination (injecting harmless pathogens)
• What are the symptoms of measles?


  Fever and red skin rash
• How is measles spread?


  Through droplet infection
• What are the initial symptoms of HIV?


  Flu-like symptoms
• How is HIV primarily spread?


  By sexual contact or exchange of bodily fluids
• What is the purpose of antiretroviral drugs in HIV treatment?


  To stop the virus from replicating in the body
• What are the symptoms of Salmonella food poisoning?


  Fever, stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhoea
• How is Salmonella spread?


  Through raw meat and eggs, and unhygienic conditions
• What is the main prevention method for Gonorrhoea?


  Using contraception such as condoms
• What are the symptoms of Rose black spot disease?


  Purple or black spots on leaves
• How is malaria spread?

  By the female Anopheles mosquito
• What is the role of the skin in the human defense system?


  It acts as a physical barrier and produces antimicrobial secretions
• What are the components of the non-specific defense system?


  1. Skin: Physical barrier and antimicrobial secretions
  2. Nose: Hairs and mucus to trap particles
  3. Trachea and bronchi: Mucus secretion and cilia action
  4. Stomach: Hydrochloric acid to kill pathogens
• What is phagocytosis?


  It is the process of engulfing and consuming pathogens
• What happens when antibodies bind to pathogens?


  Pathogens clump together, making it easier for white blood cells to find them
• What is herd immunity?


  It is when a large proportion of the population is immunized, reducing pathogen spread
• What is the main function of antibiotics?


  To kill bacterial pathogens inside the body
• Why can't antibiotics kill viruses?


  Because viruses use body cells to reproduce
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of vaccination?


  Advantages:

  • Eradicated many diseases (e.g., smallpox)
  • Prevents epidemics through herd immunity

  
  

  Disadvantages:

  • Not always effective
  • Rare bad reactions (e.g., fevers)
• What causes antibiotic resistance in bacteria?


  Mutations during reproduction that allow some bacteria to survive antibiotics
• What are the steps to prevent antibiotic resistance?


  1. Stop overusing antibiotics
  2. Finish courses of antibiotics
• What is the role of preclinical testing in drug development?


  To test drugs for toxicity, efficacy, and dose
• Where were many drugs initially discovered?

  In plants and microorganisms
• What is the main focus of drug synthesis today?


  New drugs are mainly synthesized by chemists
• What is the purpose of painkillers?


  To treat the symptoms of a disease
• What is the difference between antibiotics and painkillers?


  Antibiotics kill bacteria, while painkillers treat symptoms
• What is the significance of the development of resistant bacteria?


  It means that previously effective antibiotics may no longer work
• How can the spread of malaria be prevented?


  By using insecticide-coated nets and removing stagnant water
• What is the role of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?


  To kill pathogens in food and drink
• What is the function of skin flora?


  To compete with bad microorganisms for space and nutrients
• What is the role of cilia in the respiratory system?


  To waft mucus upwards so it can be swallowed