patho exam 1 study guide

• Define a symptom

  Clinical manifestations that are described by the patient
• describe homeostasis

  Equilibrium, balance, consistency, or stability. In the body, this self-regulating, give-and-take system responds to minor changes in the body’s status through compensation mechanisms.
• Epinephrine is released during what phase of the general adaptation syndrome

  alarm
• During a stress response, what is released?

  epinephrine
• What is the function of the mitochondria?

  Primarily responsible for cellular respiration and energy production. Acts like the digestive system, by consuming nutrients, breaking them down, and creating energy-rich molecules for the cell.
• Know the effectiveness of the RAAS system (vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure)

  In hypotensive states, this mechanism raises blood pressure (because renal blood flow is decreased) and maintains vital organs. When blood flow is decreased to the kidneys, renin is released, which activates angiotensin I to converted to angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor) and stimulates aldosterone secretion.
• define hyperplasia

  An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue. This increase occurs only in cells that have the ability to perform mitotic division, such as epithelial cells.
• Be able to apply the concept of homeostasis

  bodys way of maintaining stablity

  ex. temp regulations, blood sugar, positive and negative feedback loop
• what is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

  SER produces lipids and hormones, stores and metabolizes calcium ions, and performs various other functions depending on the cell type. RER is the site of synthesizing and transporting lysosomal enzymes and proteins for intracellular (e.g., Golgi apparatus) and extracellular use.
• know the function of hormone renin?

  Regulation of blood pressure. it works together with angiotensin and aldosterone to manage the levels of sodium and potassium in your body
• how does hydrostatic capillary action cause edema?

  When hydrostatic capillary pressure is increased, it can overpower the normal balance and force fluid out of the blood vessels into interstitial spaces. It restricts the movement of macromolecules from the blood to the interstitium.
• What body functions cause fluid volume deficits?

  Not drinking enough water, excessive fluid loss, decreased fluid retention, excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, frequent urination, blood loss, burns, diabetes, kidney disease, adrenal insufficiency, prolonged hyperventilation,
• What electrolyte is associated with muscular tetany?

  low calcium levels
• Know the symptoms of dehydration

  Thirst

  Altered level of consciousness

  Hypotension

  Tachycardia

  Weak, thready pulse

  Flat jugular veins

  Dry mucous membranes

  Decreased skin turgor

  Oliguria

  Weight loss

  Sunken fontanelles (in infants)
• define osmosis

  The movement of water or another solvent across the cellular membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration.
• Extracellular fluid contains higher levels of these 2 electrolytes?

  Sodium and chloride
• Intracellular fluid contains higher levels of which electrolyte?

  high levels of potassium
• Fluid loss from the body occurs in which ways?

  Urination, sweating, breathing, defecation, vomiting, and blood loss
• Bones are a reservoir for what electrolyte?

  Calcium
• Know the normal lab value range for potassium, sodium, calcium/what happens to the body when outside this range?

  sodium (135-145 mEq/L)- HYPO cerebral edema, water shifts into cells, HYPER seizures, tachycardia

  potassium (3.5-5.3 mEq/L)- HYPO weak/irregular pulse, hyporeflexia, HYPER bradycardia, flaccid paralysis

  calcium (4-5 mEq/L) -HYPO confusion, lethargy, depression, HYPER coma, decreased memory, Abdominal pain
•  Know the clinical manifestations of fluid excess

  Peripheral, Periorbital, Cerebral edema

  Anasarca

  Dyspnea

  Bounding pulse

  Tachycardia

  Jugular vein distention

  ​Hypertension

  ​Polyuria

  Rapid weight gain

  ​Crackles in lung

  Bulging fontanelles (in infants)
• Know ABGs

  ph 7.35-7.45

  PaO2 95-100 mm Hg

  PaCO2 35-45 mm Hg

  bicarbonate (HCO3) 22-26 mEq/L

  base excess -2.4 to 2.5 mEq/L

  Arterial O2 saturation 96–98%
•  Know cause of metabolic alkalosis

  results from excess bicarbonate or deficient acid, or both. These conditions cause the pH to rise above 7.45
•  Define active transport

  The movement of a substance from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration, against a concentration gradient

  This movement requires a carrier molecule and energy (ATP)
• Isotonic solutions

  have concentrations of solutes equal to those in the intravascular compartment and moves equally between all compartments and do not cause notable shifts in fluid volume
• Hypotonic solutions


  have a lower concentration of solutes than the solution in the intravascular compartment and cause fluid to shift from the intravascular compartment to the intracellular space.
• Hypertonic solutions 


  Have a higher concentration of solutes than the solution in the intravascular compartment. Hypertonic solutions cause fluid to shift from the intracellular compartment to the intravascular space.
• An imbalance of this ion causes an imbalance in acid and bases


  hydrogen (H+)
• Know Chvostek’s sign and cause

  An indicator of hypocalcemia when a spasm or brief contraction of the corner of the mouth, nose, eye, and muscles in the cheek results from tapping the facial nerve in front of the ear.
• high fluid loss occurs via which body system?

  primarily lost in the urine and feces, skin, and the respiratory tract
• Clinical manifestations of cellulitis

  swollen, warm, tender area of erythema

  fever, leukocytosis, malaise, and arthralgia. If left untreated, cellulitis can lead to necrotizing fasciitis, septicemia, and septic shock.
• passive immunity

  immunity gained by receiving antibodies made outside the body by another person, animal, or recombinant DNA.

  In passive immunity, the person is not actively producing antibodies, and protection is short lived.

  ex. mother-to-fetus transfer of antibodies through the placenta and breastfeeding transference of antibodies.
• effects of histamine on the body

  itching, headache, flushing, abdominal pain, bloating, gastric acid secretion, hypotension, vasodilation, high blood pressure
• know what macrophages do

  White blood cells within tissues, produced by differentiation of monocytes, phagocytize and stimulate lymphocytes and other immune cells to respond to pathogens.
• during an allergic reaction basophils are

  in high concentration
• know the importance of hand washing


  purpose- infection control, limits exposure to pathogens

  method- soap+ warm water + scrubbing for 60 seconds

  reason- hands are a significant source of transmission
• Increased capillary permeability is a clinical manifestation of a


  sprain
• This white blood cell creates antibodies

  B cells when attack invading bacteria, viruses, and toxins
• What immunoglobulin is most abundant and responsible for eating bacteria

  immunoglobin IgG
• clinical manifestations of the inflammatory system

  erythema, edema, heat, pain