3.1 analyse situations of criminality

• Explain criminality. In this Topic, we shall deal with particular situations of criminality. Some of the case studies are drawn from real life, while others are scenarios similar to ones that you could be given in the Unit 2 examination.
• Labelling theory


  • Eddie's teachers labelled him as 'thick' and the school placed him in the bottom sets, suggesting they have a low opinion of him and expect him to fail. This has become a self-fulfilling prophecy - Eddie has accepted the school's view of him as a failure: he doesn't like the school (after all, school doesn't much like him); he gets bored, misbehaves, gets in trouble and truants. Educational failure is often linked to criminal behaviour and may be the underlying cause of Eddie's criminality.
• Subcultural theory


  • Working-class boys like Eddie may develop a delinquent subculture as a reaction to their failure in the education system and their lack of opportunities. They may see criminal behaviour as a badge of honour, not shame, and the only way to gain status and respect from their peers.
• Social learning theory


  • Eddie sees Tony's criminal behaviour being positively rewarded by the other boys who admire him, and decides to imitate this behaviour by spraying graffiti. Eddie is able to identify with Tony because he is a bit older but easy to identify with because he is in a similar position to Eddie.
• Strain theory


  • Merton's strain theory is usually used to explain working-class crime, but it can be applied to corporate crime as well. Merton argued that American culture values material wealth or 'success', and those who cannot obtain it by legitimate means will tend to adopt illegitimate means - which Merton calls 'innovation'. In the case of Ford, the pressure to produce a cheap car and maximise profits led them to take the cheaper option of paying compensation rather than fixing the defect.
• Marxist theory


  • Marxist theory argues that corporate crime is a product of the capitalist system, where the pursuit of profit overrides concerns for human welfare. Ford's decision to prioritise profits over safety can be seen as an example of this.
• Cognitive theories


  • Yochelson and Samenow's criminal personality theory argues that crime is the result of errors and biases in criminals' thought processes, including egocentrism, superoptimism, weakness of conscience and a very high opinion of oneself. These are all characteristics of Simon's personality. These errors lead to criminal behaviour as it seems easier to commit a crime if you believe that victims deserve what they get.
• Kohlberg's moral development theory

  • Kohlberg's theory argues that some individuals are stuck at the pre-conventional or pre-moral stage found in young children. In this stage, the individual defines right and wrong solely in terms of personal gain - he believes that if you can get away with something, it is acceptable, regardless of the impact on others.
• Eysenck's personality theory


  • Eysenck's theory suggests that criminals are likely to be extraverts, with a high need for stimulation and a low fear of punishment. This matches Simon's personality, which is described as cocky, confident and egotistical, with a tendency to take risks and minimise the odds of getting caught.
• Labelling theory


  • The police and others in authority may have labelled Darren as a 'hard case', which has become a self-fulfilling prophecy - he is treated as a troublemaker and this reinforces his aggressive behaviour.
• Strain theory


  • Darren comes from a deprived background and may feel a sense of strain or frustration at his lack of opportunities. This could explain his aggressive behaviour as a way of gaining status and respect from his peers.
• Differential association theory


  • Darren may have been socialised into criminal behaviour through his association with delinquent peers who have taught him techniques of offending and provided him with the motivation to engage in crime.
• Social learning theory


  • Darren may have learned criminal behaviour by observing his peers being rewarded for such behaviour, and decided to imitate it in order to gain status and respect.
• Differential association theory


  • Sutherland's theory would explain the actions of the Enron directors, arguing that they were socialised into a corporate culture that normalised and even encouraged unethical and criminal practices in order to maximise profits and personal gain.
• Labelling theory


  • The Enron directors were able to avoid being negatively labelled and seen as criminals, simply because of their high status and the veneer of respectability that surrounded the company. This enabled them to get away with their corrupt practices for so long without being held accountable.
• Eysenck's personality theory


  • Eysenck's theory suggests that the Enron directors, with their tendency to engage in 'big business' tactics, gambling with shareholders' and employees' investments and savings to line their own pockets, and their assumption that the share price would continue to rise indefinitely, display some key characteristics of extraverts - aggression, risk-taking, excitement-seeking and optimism.
• Material deprivation


  • Sharon's deprived background and lack of opportunities may have led her to turn to crime as a way of acquiring the material goods she desires but cannot obtain through legitimate means.
• Subcultural theory


  • The influence of Ellie and her delinquent peer group may have socialised Sharon into a deviant subculture that accepts and even encourages criminal behaviour as a way of gaining status and respect.
• Social learning theory


  • Sharon is likely to have observed Ellie and her friends being rewarded for their criminal activities, which may have encouraged her to imitate this behaviour in the hope of gaining similar rewards.
• Differential association theory


  • Sharon's close association with Ellie and her delinquent peers may have exposed her to criminal techniques and values, leading her to engage in shoplifting and other crimes.