3.2 evaluate the effectiveness

• Types of biological theories

  • Physiological theories
  • Genetic theories
  • Biochemical explanations
• Physiological theories (Lombroso)


  Criminals are physically different from non-criminals, for example in terms of their facial characteristics
• Strengths of Lombroso's theory

  • Lombroso was the first person to study crime scientifically, using objective measurements to gather evidence
  • His research showed the importance of examining clinical and historical records of criminals
  • His later work took some limited account of social and environmental factors, not just heredity
  • By arguing that offenders were not freely choosing to commit crime, Lombroso helps us to focus on how we might prevent further offending rather than simply punishing offenders
• Limitations of Lombroso's theory


  • Research since Lombroso has failed to show a link between facial features and criminality
• Physiological theories (Sheldon)


  Sheldon found that 60% of the convicted males were more likely to have a mesomorphic body type
• Sheldon's theory does not explain whether mesomorphs commit crimes other than violence
• Genetic theories (twin studies)


  If one identical twin is criminal, the other is 100% likely to also be criminal
• Strengths of twin studies

  • Because twins are genetically identical, it is logical to examine whether their criminal behaviours are also identical
  • Twin studies give support to genetic explanations, with Christiansen and Raine finding a high concordance rate for identical twins compared to non-identical twins
• Genetic theories (adoption studies)

  Adopted children are as often placed in environments similar to those of the birth parents as they are placed in environments different from those of the birth parents
• Limitations of adoption studies

  • Adopted children are not adopted immediately after birth but may have been exposed to the birth environment for some time, so this early environment may be the true cause of any criminal behaviour
• Genetic theories (XYY syndrome)


  Some males have an extra Y chromosome, which may cause deviant behaviour
• Strengths of XYY syndrome theory

  • Nielson et al found an association between XYY syndrome and offending, particularly violent behaviour
  • Price and Whatmore found some links between the syndrome and property crime
• Biochemical explanations suggest that chemical factors may influence criminal behaviour by affecting brain chemistry and mental processes
• Strengths of biochemical explanations

  • Sexual hormones, blood sugar levels and substance abuse can affect mood, judgment and impulsivity
  • Alcohol produces disinhibition, reducing self-control and leading to criminal behaviour, particularly violence
  • Crack cocaine has been wrongly linked to violent crime
• Limitations of biochemical explanations

  • Biochemical processes may predispose some individuals to offend, but it may require a 'trigger' to cause actual offending
• General criticisms of biological theories include sample bias, the social construction of crime, and the search for universal explanations
• Types of individualistic theories

  • Psychodynamic theories
  • Learning theories
  • Cognitive theories
• Psychodynamic theories (Freud)


  Freud's psychoanalytic theory explains criminal behaviour as faulty socialisation, with the superego preventing the individual from expressing their anonymous id desires
• Strengths of Freud's theory

  • The theory points to the importance of socialisation and family relations in understanding criminal behavior
  • Psychoanalytic explanations have had some influence on approaches for dealing with crime and deviance
• Psychodynamic theories (Bowlby)


  Bowlby's theory links maternal deprivation in early childhood to later criminal and antisocial behaviour
• Bowlby's theory has been criticised as there is no evidence that maternal deprivation has a permanent effect on behaviour
• Learning theories (differential association)

  Differential association theory sees criminal behaviour as learned through interactions with others, especially intimate groups
• Eysenck's personality theory


  Eysenck sees criminality as the result of a combination of high Extraversion, high Neuroticism and low Psychoticism, leading to poor conditioning and a tendency to seek stimulation and disinhibition
• Limitations of Eysenck's theory


  • The theory fails to describe how some people with these personality tendencies do not become offenders
  • Eysenck's predictions about the personality types of offenders are not always supported by research
• Learning theories (operant learning)

  Operant learning theory sees criminal behaviour as learned through reinforcement of behaviours that lead to rewards
• Limitations of operant learning theory


  • The theory is based on studies of learning in animals, which may not adequately explain how humans learn criminal behaviours
  • The theory ignores internal mental processes and explains criminal behaviour solely in terms of external rewards and punishments
• Learning theories (social learning theory)


  Social learning theory sees criminal behaviour as learned through observation and modelling of others' behaviours
• Cognitive theories (criminal personality theory)


  Criminal personality theory argues that offenders have a distinct set of cognitive distortions and thinking styles that lead to criminal behaviour
• Limitations of criminal personality theory

  • The sample used to develop the theory was small, unrepresentative and had high attrition rates
  • The theory assumes that all offenders share the same cognitive distortions, which may not be the case
• Cognitive theories (moral development theory)


  Moral development theory argues that criminals are stuck at an immature stage of morality, unable to make moral choices, leading to criminal behaviour
• Some studies show delinquents are more likely to have immature moral development, as the theory predicts
• Types of sociological theories

  • Functionalist and subcultural theories
  • Interactionism and labelling theory
  • Right realism
  • Left realism
  • Surveillance theories
• Functionalism (Durkheim)


  Durkheim argued that society requires a certain amount of deviance to function, as it helps define social boundaries between right and wrong
• Limitations of Durkheim's functionalism

  • Durkheim claims society requires a certain amount of deviance, but does not explain how much is the right amount
  • What is functional for some may be dysfunctional for others
• Functionalism (Merton)


  Merton argued that blocked opportunities to achieve societal goals by legitimate means leads some to use criminal means
• Strengths of Merton's theory

  • Merton showed how both norms and deviant behaviour are a function of the unequal distribution of opportunities in society
• Subcultural theories


  Subcultural theories see crime as a response to blocked opportunities, with offenders developing alternative subcultures and values
• Subcultural theories do not explain where the power to set the dominant cultural goals comes from in the first place
• Interactionism and labelling theory

  Labelling theory argues that an individual becomes criminal when labeled as such by others, so the focus should be on how certain acts and people get labeled as criminal
• Strengths of labelling theory

  • Labelling theory shows that the law is not a fixed set of rules, but something whose construction is shaped by those with power
  • It explains how the police define and apply labels based on the characteristics of the 'typical criminal'