Women

• position of women in the 1860s - social

  - Role: majority married women at home, separate spheres, marry and give up job for family

  - CW & growth industry: CW briefly offered opps to work, limited progress in medicine, schools strict controls on no. women admitted/graduate but inc more started to admit

  - westward expansion: hard for women, isolation from communities, married women labourers + teachers, many died bc childbirth lack of medical care, depression bc poverty
• position of women 1860s - economic

  - most notable advance was inc opp for unmarried women in workplace+middle class

  - CW & growth industry: vast rural areas agricultural work as women replaced men, women worked as nurses tending to wounds which was seen as extension of domestic work not profession, CW sped up process US becoming leading industrial nation as inc work opps when war ended and by 1870, 13% all unmarried women already worked in domestic occupations, married working class in poverty+needed income took in mending, lodgers
• Position of women 1860s - political

  - pursuit womens right to vote underway 1865 continued by mainly middle class, educated women, law ensured limits to married womens rights, women tended to be in pressure groups to protect home rather than CR

  - married women often barred working outside home by state/employers

  - westward expansion: some given opp to own land in own right under Homestead Act 1862 (encourage west migration to populate+develop vast land, gave 160 acres grant free to stay on land 5yrs)

  - 15th Amendment 1870 estb Federal state govs X withhold right to vote on race - states own voting qualifications, women campaigners angry not included in it
• Economic changes 1865-1914

  - Gilded Age 1875-95 (glittering on surface but corrupt underneath)

  - changing eco - continued development manufacturing industry, big business

  - inc availability consumer goods for help at home

  - better education prospects

  BUT

  - little changes to ideology and 'separate spheres' attitude

  - men paid more for same work

  - majority unmarried women desired marriage/family
• Extent the changing economy increased opportunities for working class married women?

  - need money for family income so exploited by devious entrepreneurs who bought old tenemant buildings + obliged home workers to live there

  - overcrowded became sweatshops where women and children worked long hours for little pay
• Extent the changing economy increased opportunities for urban working women

  - no. inc by those migrating from farming regions in search of work

  - mechanisation of farming reduced need for large workforce but ensured farm work became male dominant as new tech unsuitable for women

  - all farmers (M+F) as total % of labour force fell 53% 1870 to 37.5% 1900
• Extent the changing economy increased opportunities for immigrant women

  - as young white women left factory floor, places taken by immigrant women, AA, hispanic

  - cheap, unskilled workers unprotected by legislation, working conditions poor, long hrs, low wages

  - end 19th century, immigrant female factory workers worked avg 70hrs for $5

  - early 1900s worked factories but other positions like domestic service too
• Extent the changing economy increased opportunities for unmarried educated women

  - by 1890s, unmarried women with high school education could graduate from factory floors to clean offices of business enterprise

  - invention of typewriter and telephone helped

  - young female white collar worker earn $7 week

  - 1900, around 949,000 women working teachers etc, risen to 3.4mil 1920

  - but no career women in white collar work as men remained managers, expect women to leave soon
• Extent the changing economy increased opportunities for working class women

  - opps expanded as growth manufacturing industry, largely benefitted unmarried 1870+1900

  - 1870 13% all unmarried worked outside home by 1900 no. women workers tripled so now 17% of workforce total

  - young unmarried left domestic service to work in textile, garments
• did better education = better career prospects?


  - 1900 education was one key factors in creating better opps in workplace

  - 1/2 high school graduates female but may not take into acc all pop

  - many regarded good education as stage in preparation for marriage

  - turn century, atleast half women graduating delaying marriage for career in teaching+social work but male professions eg medicine harder to get into

  - by 1900 rise in divorce rate
• Did changes in lifestyle for middle class married women erode ideal of home and family?

  - late 19th/early 20th century, saw expansion of urban m-c male clerical workers

  - development city transport systems = white collar workers (professional workers) on secure income move into better housing; have indoor heating, washing machine, fridges for m-c married women

  - farming and immigrant families remained large (6-8 children) and whites becoming smaller

  - 1900 avg birth rate fell bc birth control. Opposed by some bc religious views

  - fewer children and household labour X mean all married women looking for work; more family time
• 1865-1914: social reformers and campaigners


  - before WW1 women had no political power but prepared to protest

  - minority m-c women asserted themselves, condemned inequality/social evils threatened family

  - temperance (advocacy of drinking in moderation/avoid excess) another area org demanded reform - threat

  - active protests e.g pressure groups Womens Christian Temperance Union WCTU, 1000s took streets close saloons and liquor outlets
• campaign for the vote 1865-1914: what type of woman mainly involved in campaign for suffrage? why?

  - some pressure through National Consumers League (NCL) 1899 gain recognition for rights in workplace - mainly m-c promote cause of womens suffrage+combat excessive drinking . pressure improvement wages, secure protective laws, provide aid for mothers

  - black women directly concerned with rights/equality. 1896 National Association of Colored Women NACW. By 1915 had 50,000 members, one main figure = Ida B. Wells

  - campaign mainly by m-c educated white women focused on social reform with husbands who were male activists so helped
• why is 1848 taken to be the official beginning of campaign for womens suffrage in the US?

  - extension to right of vote to all males in 15th Amendment angered female activists as extended the franchise to all men irrespective of wealth, ethnicity etc whilst failing estb right vote for wealthy+well educated women
• why did the movements split? why did the groups merge again?

  - opposition to 14/15th A. split reform movement - one section remained pledged to secure vote for male AAs whilst adopting moderate approach for womens vote American Women Suffrage Association 1869 formed. Others campaigned more aggressively for federal constitutional amendment recognise right to vote National Womens Suffrage Association NWSA estb 1869

  - 1890 two orgs formed National American Woman Suffrage Association NAWSA - support from mainstream women was limited, by 1905 only 17,000 members and 1915 only 100,000
• How did Alice Pauls Congressional Union for Womens Suffrage differ from other suffrage groups?

  - replicated methods on militant British suffragettes, organising mass demonstrations and with small band of like minded women

  - received 7 month prison sentence in US for illegally voting in presidential election, during which she and others staged hunger strikes
• impact of suffragist activity on...

  - Voting rights: by 1918, 20 states given women right to vote in state elections

  - public sympathy and support: sympathy aroused by treatment of suffragettes in prison

  - attitudes of politicians: part played by women on home front ww1 accelerated federal response, following wilsons call 1918 for constitutional amendment giving women to vote and congress gave approval 1919, 19th amendment to constitution set in place 1920
• social changes 1865-1914

  - immigrant families forced live in overcrowded unsanitary ghettos in cities

  - by 1900 avg birth rate fell to 3.56 children from 5.42 1850

  - 1880 about one in every 21 marriages ended in divorce. by 1900 this had risen to 1 in 2
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - economic TP

  - opp married women legitimately enter workforce

  - USA expanded production ammunition, goods etc created opps unmarried/AA

  - entered war 1917 inc demand for labour

  - women farming areas still ploughed, in cities went to work heavy industry, transport vehicles. Approx 11,000 served navy as nurses, clerical workers

  - many earned good wages although still less than men
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - economic X TP

  - did little to change accepted role of married women - clear expectation that women left home support war effort but would return when men returned

  - expected and accepted by majority married women
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - social TP

  - Jane Addams continued campaign essential legislation to regulate working hrs + conditions, abolish child labour, improve living conditions for poor

  - educated AA women e.g Mary Talbert led campaign to prevent lynching

  - W's bureau estb 1920 in Dept of Labour limited in what achieved bc focus to improve work conditions + unfair treatment at work

  - Shepherd Towner Act 1921 made funds available for after maternity+infant health education

  - W pressure grounds influence successful intro prohibition 1920 + repeal 1933

  - feminist groups, equal rights campaign for ERA 1923
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - social X TP


  - educated women upheld sanctity of home/family, press for social reform

  - most extreme opposition from right wing anti-feminist opposed equal rights+actively campaigned against use propaganda, some formed branch kkk

  - 1969, campaign ERA did nothing

  - disagreements over what equality meant

  - shepherd Towner Act, limited, funding terminated 1929. Medical profession resisted provision of care, free of charge

  - legislation to ban employment for kids under 14yrs + intro 8hr day for women was short lived - legislation overthrown by SC 1922
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - political TP

  - opps greater in the west. By 1918, 20 states had given women the vote. Women seized opp for public office

  - 1920, 19th Amendment gave most W over 21st right to vote, exceptions were immigrant W not naturalised (given citizenship) - gratitude for womens war effort, free/equal citizens

  - general tendency of pre war period, W campaign for specific issues, W active church orgs, groups promote educational improvement/better work, moral uplift

  - interest in non party politics like work of Association of southern W for Prevention of lynching - urged federal gov against inc violence in south against AA

  - consv associations e.g DAR
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - political X TP


  - generally politics regarded by men as too dishonest/disreputable an activity for women

  - AA unable to take advantage of the 19th A. Bc discr/intimidation

  - immediate response from women X enthusiastic; maj W voted same as husbands

  - poor, w-c Women struggle survive, little time for politics

  - splits in W's campaigns impeded progress. NAWSA changed into League of W's voters LWV but divided; Jane Addams wanted campaign on womens issues, other wanted W integrate in politics+equal citizens. 1920 elections low turnout

  - NAWSA attempted recruit more support in south, southern committee didnt encourage AA to join as feared loss of support

  - 19th A. Didnt radically alter the congress, gov, laws
• To what extent was WW1 a turning point in the advancement of WCR? - political X TP2


  - interwar campaigns included: struggle independent citizenship, right own land, right run public office, register to vote

  - right to vote depended on residence, chosen by husband

  - 1960s some states X allow married women sign contracts independently/run a business

  - Nationals W's Party appeal Equal Rights Amendment ERA, divided opinion. Fear remove protection of e.g working hrs. By 1900, 36% states had regulations about working 8-10hrs. Decision of SC 1912 declared state regulations was legal, by 1920 over 75% states restricting womens hrs of work through this. Equal pay so inc unemployment as can't afford

  - Wisconsin passed equal rights laws 1921
• Gaining the vote in federal elections 1920 = most important TP?


  - 19th Amendment tried to be passed by Aaron Augustus Sargent, 40yrs failure, passed house 21st may 1919, passed senate 4th june 1919, eventually ratified 36th state required; Tennessee

  - by 1918, 20 states in west/Midwest already given women right to vote

  - Jeanette Rankin first women elected to House of Reps 1917, others joined 1920 but few

  - first women elected to Senate was Hattie Caraway 1932

  - generally attitude was that politics too disreputable for women, affected no. Actively participating

  - up until 1940 had only been 5 female senators + 65 reps
• The roaring twenties


  - period of dramatic social and political change.

  - more Americans in cities than farms

  - nations total wealth more than doubled 1920-29 and swept into 'consumer society
• To what extent did the impact of the post war boom create a positive change for women in eco terms

  - during 1920s, US underwent massive expansion of manufacturing industry, created unprecedented prosperity. Mass produced, consumer goods proliferated as luxury items readily available to all classes

  - created more jobs for unmarried women and opp for easier home life for married as facilities

  - no. Working class, married women in workforce inc lightly 22.8% to 28.8%

  - overall no. Women entering workforce inc by 2mil - inc jobs in shops, factories

  - still discr, seen as threat to mens work. Some resort union activity defend rights in workplace but limited impact. 1929 strike North Carolina = 6 deaths. 1930s inc membership unions 265,000 to 800,000
• Who were the 'Flappers'? What does this suggest about the extent to which women experienced the 'roaring twenties'?

  - young upper/m-c women who threw off standards and norms

  - characterised by bobbed hair, short clothes, sometimes promiscuous behaviour

  - didn't represent social revolution in reality nor present unifying concept of 'modern woman'

  - majority women disapproved of extrovert behaviour

  - little erosion of acceptance of separate spheres and little lasting effect
• What were the prevailing attitudes of birth control in the 1920s?

  - women had no choice in child bearing. Although white m-c women families suggest some form birth control, AA and poorer white families remained large

  - religious beliefs an important factor. Catholics and some protestant, relationships within marriage believed to be for procreation
• What were the Comstock Laws? Which women were negatively affected by this?

  - 1873. Effectively made the sale, advertisement, distribution of contraceptives illegal. Drove contraceptives into 'under the counter' which meant could be bought but at rly high price

  - last vestiges of laws finally overturned by SC case Griswold V. Connecticut 1965 that use of contraceptives rested within a couples 'right to privacy'

  - expensive for poorer families. W obliged resort to illegal black street abortion

  - Comstock Laws ended 1938 when federal ban on birth control lifted but state legislatures enforced own laws on it.
• Margaret Sanger and the American Birth Control League


  - passionate women choose if or when to bear children

  - 1912 began, newspaper articles giving contraceptive advice to women in defiance of Comstock Laws

  - serve 30 days in prison for opening birth control clinic 1916

  - estb ABCL 1921 - educate through distribution of written materials, conferences, field workers to educate and estb birth control centres across the US - 1st 1923

  - by 1924 ABCL had 27,500 members but only 10 branches in cities across 8 states
• How important were women in the rise and fall of prohibition

  - nationwide prohibition lasted 1920-33

  - 18th Amendment banned production, importation, transportation, sale of alcohol

  - private ownership and consumption was not illegal under federal law, but local laws stricter many areas with some states banning possession outright

  - supporters of prohibition = 'drys' and against = 'wets'

  - prohibition ended with the ratification of 21st A. Dec 1933
• Reasons why prohibition was introduced linking to women

  - Dec 1917, 18th Amendment passed. 21st Amendment repealing this was ratified 1933

  - m-c women involved in temperance movement. From 1874 the campaign was dominated by Womens Christian Temperance Union

  - TP 1893 formation of Anti-saloon ASL: non partisan (not aligned with other political parties) and allied with union above for prohibition push. Most support N+S

  - by 1917, 26 states had laws but some, home made liquor remained legal. ASL+WCTU recognised needed consistency, only come from national proh laws - use propaganda and pressure.

  - by 1919 required number state legislatures ratified 1917 amendment for proh
• Why had the attitudes of women to prohibition changed by late 1920s?

  - sig no. Women started to join for repeal of proh, particularly members of WCTU. Anti proh showed extent to which women deeply divided in how to achieve priorities

  - proh spawned whole new culture of violence, perceived as threat to the home/family by women who saw themselves as the guardians of the 'separate spheres'

  - illegal importation and production of alcohol and its consumption in equally illegal speakeasies (illegal liquor shops) contributed to growth of organise crime of grand scale, including racketeering (illegal business deals), prostitution, drug trafficking

  - law enforcement paralysed bc extent of crimes/key officials on pay roll of wealthy gang bosses
• Womens organisations involved in the Prohibition Campaigns

  - Womens Org for National Proh Reform WONPR formed 1929 bc arguments by WCTU/ASL no longer had same power; laws not effective in achieving goal of abstinence

  - leadership of WONPR so powerful/well organised that could quickly capitalise on womens disillusionment with proh to drive for repeal of Amendment

  - by 1931, 1.5mil members but many leaders subject to abuse from pro proh W
• Why was the WONPR successful?

  - campaign for protection of family as opposed to personal freedom

  - support from previous supporters proh bc proh failed achieve goals to home protection

  - leadership and core members were upper class + organised state/national levels, had husbands members of all-male Association Against Proh Amendment AAPA formed 1918 By late 1920s, WCTU inc working class org so no longer capacity/influence policy

  - WONPR effectively harnessed methods used by WCTU+ASL to bring repeal; pressured congressmen, held rallies, intensive campaign of home visits

  - in-line WCTU, WONPR didnt claim any strongly religious affiliation; broadened appeal
• Other factors helped WONPR for repeal?

  - said sig loss of tax revenue as a result of liquor ban

  - Great Depression, Roosevelt struggled restore US economy/unemployment, so potential income from tax on liquor and job opps that would accompany production was attractive possibility

  - 21st Amendment 5th Dec 1933 ending proh
• What did the campaigns for prohibition and then its repeal achieve for women in the US?


  - clear women were force to be reckoned with in bringing about change when well led, highly org

  - divisions existed between women who remained faithful to the WCTU cause and WONPR exemplify differences that continued to impede formation of united womens movement

  - WCTU/WONPR did nothing to further cause of rights for women or to improve position of working class/poor women

  - proh campaigns showed protection of home continued to be most powerful cause
• To what extend did the New Deal progress the rights of women? - social

  - policies bias to male breadwinners, little raise for self esteem of women

  - social security act 1935 helped alleviate family stress by intro welfare benefits for poor families - benefitted married women but not specific for them

  - aid to dependent children 1935 helped W with young families unable to work + had no male head of house - obliged to white W