L2

• The Stone Age started at the beginning of human existence until about 3,000 BCE, and is marked by the invention and use of stone tools by our early human ancestors and the eventual transformation of the society from a culture of hunting and gathering to farming and food production
• Resources were not abundant during the Stone Age, and early humans were living in the midst of wild animals making them easy targets/prey
• There are limited to no written accounts of the human activities that occurred during the Stone Age, so archaeologists rely on cave drawings and unearthed artifacts to study this era
• Common Stone Age tools

  • Daggers
  • Spear points
  • Hand axes
  • Choppers
  • Scrapers
  • Flint flakes
  • Bone needles
  • Fishhooks
• Paleolithic Period


  • Humans were food gatherers/hunters, depending on hunting wild animals and birds, fishing, and collecting wild fruits, nuts, and berries
  • They were nomads with no permanent shelters
• Mesolithic Period


  • Humans used small stone tools (microliths), now also more polished and sometimes crafted with points and attached to antlers, bone or wood to serve as spears and arrows
  • They often lived nomadically in camps near rivers and other bodies of water
  • Agriculture was introduced during this time, which led to more permanent settlements in villages
• Neolithic Period

  • Ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to agriculture and food production
  • They domesticated animals and cultivated cereal grains
  • They developed control over fire, which allowed for different uses
  • They used polished hand axes for ploughing and tilling the land and started to settle in the plains
  • Advancements were made in tools, farming, home construction, and art, including pottery, sewing and weaving using the loom
• Bronze Age


  • Advances in metallurgy were made, as bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was discovered
  • Bronze was used for weapons and tools, replacing stone predecessors and helping spark innovations, including the ox-drawn bronze plow and the wheel
  • The Bronze Age changed the face of farming with the invention of irrigation and the field system
• The first ever soap of Human History was invented during the Bronze Age, with an equation for soap found on the Babylonian earth tablet that dated 2800 B.C.
• Bronze Age


  • Organized government, law and warfare, as well as beginnings of religion, also came into play
  • The earliest written accounts, including Egyptian hieroglyphs and petroglyphs (rock engravings), are also dated to this age
  • It was marked by the rise of states or kingdoms—large-scale societies joined under a central government by a powerful ruler
• Iron Age


  • Iron was first smelted from ore in South Caucasus, and smelting iron, a metal harder than copper and tin, requires a more intensive process
  • Better, sturdier, and more reliable agricultural tools were produced in this age making agriculture a lot easier than the previous period
  • The first coins, imprinted metal pieces for exchange, seem to have emerged in Iron Age around 600 B.C. in Lydia
• Agriculture, art, and religion all became more sophisticated during the Iron Age, and writing systems and written documentation, including alphabets, began to emerge, ushering in the early historical period
• Middle Ages in Europe

  • Very few people could read or write, leading to superstitious beliefs
  • Peasants became serfs to lords, bound to the lord's land and paying high rent in exchange for military protection
  • Notable inventions included the horse collar, watermill, magnetic compass, and mechanical clocks
  • The first industrialization occurred in cloth making, with the introduction of the spinning wheel
• Middle Ages in China

  • Inventions included the seismoscope, paper making, magnetic compass, cannon, gunpowder, acupuncture, movable type printing, wheelbarrow, and wagons
• Middle Ages in India

  • Inventions included the division of the year into 12 months, metallurgy, Ayurvedic medicine, and the concepts of square root and linear equation
• Christopher Columbus completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the Americas, but the Americas were already home to flourishing civilizations like the Maya, Aztec, and Inca long before his arrival
• Health and wellness depend on a delicate balance between the mind, body, and spirit, and its main goal is not to fight diseases but to promote good health
• The Indians were able to come up with the concepts of square root and linear equation
• Christopher Columbus, an Italian master navigator, completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the Americas
• Long before Columbus invaded the region, there were already flourishing civilizations in this part of the world - the Maya, Aztec, and Inca
• The Meso-American region or Middle America, which now extends from central Mexico down through Central America, including the territory which is now made up of the countries Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador
• Maya


  • Excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-making, and mathematics
  • Left behind an astonishing amount of impressive architecture and symbolic artwork
  • Made pyramids made out of limestone as a display of their architectural prowess
  • Used cocoa beans as monetary units
  • Invented the Mayan solar calendar
• Aztec


  • Recorded astronomical observations in stone sculptures
  • Practiced farming by slash and burn
  • Performed human sacrifice using razor-sharp obsidian blades
• Inca


  • Utilized terraces farming
  • Built irrigation canals and retaining walls
  • Made clothes by removing animals' fluffy wool
  • Performed primitive brain surgery to reduce inflammation caused by serious head injuries
• Scientific revolution is the name given to the period of drastic change in scientific thought that took place during the 16th and 17th centuries
• Scientific Revolution replaced the Greek view of nature (more on philosophical rather than empirical) that had dominated Science for almost 2,000 years ago
• Scientific Revolution


  • Characterized by an emphasis on abstract reasoning, quantitative thought, an understanding of how nature works, the view of nature as a machine, and the development of an experimental scientific method
• The establishment of printing machine in this era paved the way for the faster spread of new ideas and discoveries
• Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human, formulation of scientific ideas, and transformation of the society
• 3 Cs

  Creativity, curiosity, and critical thinking
• The 3 Cs, when merged, are the characteristics of a scientist influencing the ideas, discoveries, and technologies developed and produced
• Nicolaus Copernicus


  • Proposed that the planets revolved around the sun, which was later proven true
  • Argued that Earth turned daily on its axis and that gradual shifts of this axis accounted for the changing seasons
• Johannes Kepler


  • Discovered the three laws of planetary motion
  • Provided a new and correct account of how vision occurs
  • Discovered several new, semiregular polyhedrons
  • Gave the first proof of how logarithms worked
  • Devised a method of finding the volumes of solids of revolution that can be seen as contributing to the development of calculus
  • Calculated the most exact astronomical tables hitherto known
• Isaac Newton


  • Discovered the composition of white light
  • Formulated the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation
  • Discovered the infinitesimal calculus
  • Invented the reflecting telescope
• Charles Darwin


  • Developed the theory of evolution by natural selection
  • Made observations and contributions to entomology
• Sigmund Freud


  • Developed psychoanalysis and the theory of personality with the id, ego, and superego
• The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter period of the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones
• The first European to successfully use movable type printing was Johannes Gutenberg
• Incunabula


  Books printed using Gutenberg's movable type printer in the beginning of the Gutenberg era
• Gutenberg's bible, published in 1456, was the first book of any note to be printed with movable type printer