Theories of learning

• Bandura (1977) Observational Learning Theory

  Both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and copying other people.
• Attention

  Learner must give specific attention to the model. Therefore, it must be attractive/stand out and ACCURATE.

  Info should be clear and performer should know why they need to learn it.
• Retention

  Remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it. Chunk information, repeat it, practice ASAP after demo.
• Motor Production

  Having the mental and physical ability to do the task. Set appropriate tasks.
• Motivation

  Having the drive to do the task. Use rewards, praise, encouragement.
• Operant Conditioning

  Learning based on the consequence of a response.
• Vygotsky (1978) Social Development Theory

  Learning through interaction with others.
• Inter-psychological Learning

  Learning from others externally. Learning using others or an MKO to develop knowledge.
• Intra-psychological Learning

  The learner uses cognitive processes to analyse internally what they already know about skill acquisition to construct actions.
• Vygotsky Constructivism

  Working with others to develop skills, building on what you know.
• Zone of Proximal Development

  The next stage of learning based on the performer's needs, expectations and current level of performance.
• 3 Stages of Proximal Development

  1. What can I do alone?

  2. What can I do with help?

  3. What can I not do yet?
• Gestalt's theory

  Performer uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to overcome a problem during a problematic sporting situation.

  Concentrates on whole task so good for realistic (game) situations.

  If tactic works, provides self satisfaction & motivation.
• Insight Learning

  Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill.
• Advantages of insight learning

  -develops more independent/ creative learners

  -generates greater understanding of the skill

  -solved solutions can bring self-satisfaction and intrinsic motivation

  -become better at adapting to new solutions
• Disadvantages of insight learning

  -not appropriate for all learners

  -novice may not have experience to generate their own solutions to problems

  -may be too time consuming when developing skills
• Definition of cognitive stage

  The first stage of learning used by a novice: understanding and subroutines are explored by trial and error
• Definition of associative stage

  The second stage of learning: as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother
• Definition of autonomous stage


  The final stage of learning: used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific
• Plateau


  A period of no improvement in performance
• Plateau: causes of plateaus

  1. Lack of motivation

  2. Boredom

  3. Coaching

  4. Limit of ability

  5. Targets too low

  6. Fatigue
• Plateau; solutions

  1. A new challenge

  2. A new coach

  3. Rest

  4. More praise for more motivation

  5. More variety

  6. More feedback to improve performance
• Describe extent of muscles used, continuum

  Gross- a skill that uses large muscle groups

  E.g. tackle in rugby uses shoulder muscles for number of muscle fibres

  
  

  Fine- a school that uses smaller muscle groups

  E.g. control needed to return a shot
• Describe environmental continuum


  Open- skill performed in unpredictable environment

  E.g. a pass in football

  
  

  Closed- a skill performed in a predictable environment

  E.g. shot put
• Describe control and rate of execution continuum

  Self-paced- performer controls the start and speed of a skill

  E.g. rugby conversion- decides went to kick

  
  

  Externally paced-performer has no control over the start and speed of skill

  E.g. 3 second rule in netball
• Describe continuity continuum

  Discrete- a school that has a clear, beginning and end- one sharp action

  E.g. tennis serve

  
  

  Continuous- no clear, beginning and end

  E.g. running, swimming and cycling

  
  

  Serial- skill that contains several discreet skills in order to make an integrated movement

  E.g. triple jump
• Describe organisation, continuum

  Low- a skill that is easily broken into parts

  E.g. swimming?

  
  

  High- a skill that is not easily broken down into parts

  E.g. football volley- subroutines merged
• Describe degree of difficulty continuum

  Simple- require a few decisions when being performed. Don't have to think about it.

  E.g. 100m

  
  

  Complex- requires decision-making, using lots of information. Have to think about it.

  E.g. dribbling in football
• ACE FACE

  Aesthetically pleasing- looks good on the eye

  Consistent- having same result over sustained period

  Efficient- can execute task with minimum use of energy while achieving a high level of success

  
  

  Fluent- can execute task with minimum use of energy while achieving a high level of success

  Accurate- reaching intended target

  Controlled- power to influence result

  Economical- can execute task with minimum use of energy while achieving a high level of success

  :) learned- abilities are natural, skills developed through practice

  :) goal- directed- has an aim
• What is transfer of learning?

  The skills learnt in one activity affects/ influences/ impacts the learning of another
• What are 4 types of transfer?

  -positive

  -negative

  -zero

  -bilateral
• What is positive transfer?


  When learning of one skill helps/aids learning of another

  
  

  Similar shape or form between skills

  
  

  E.g. tennis serve and volleyball serve
• What is negative transfer?

  When action of one skill hinders learning of another

  
  

  There is similarity with environment in which two skills are performed but causes confusion when 2 skills are not the same

  
  

  E.g. tennis and badminton serve
• What is zero transfer?

  When learning one skill has no impact on the learning of another

  
  

  Since the skill have no similarity there is nothing to make it easier or add confusion

  
  

  E.g. swimming and rock climbing
• What is bilateral transfer?


  When the learning of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb

  
  

  Practicing a skill on one side of the body improves technique of the other

  
  

  E.g. kick on right foot transfers to left foot
• Whole practice


  Practising the skill in its entirety. Without breaking into subroutines

  
  

  Promotes understanding and establishes the link between sub routines
• Characteristics of whole practice

  -skill is fast/ closed/ discrete

  - skill is highly organised (not easily broken down into subroutines)

  -skill is simple

  -the feel (kinaesthesis) is required

  -Advantaged in autonomous stage of learning

  -links between sub-routines needs to be maintained or skill needs to be performed in a specific order
• Advantages of whole practice

  -Gives a feel for the whole skill

  -Helps create mental image stored as motor programme stored in the long-term memory

  -Realistic practice- enabling for positive transfer from practice to match

  Makes the skill consist
• Disadvantages of whole practice

  -Place unnecessary demands on the performer

  -Possibility of fatigue- tried whole task without break and potential information overload

  -Can be issue when there is just a specific weakness to work on or if the task is difficult to break down
• Whole-part-whole practice

  Assessing the skill, identifying a weakness to practice, then putting the skill back together