Contemporary theories

• Self-efficacy


  Belief that one is capable of performing a task
• Goal setting theory


  • Specific goals increase performance
  • Difficult goals when accepted improve individuals performance more than do easy goals
• Reinforcement theory


  Behaviour is a function of its consequences
• Reinforcers


  Consequences following a behaviour which increase the probability that a behaviour will be repeated
• Rewards and incentives are reinforcers
• Theory Y assumes that most people want to do their best at work, will exercise self-control if given the opportunity, and seek responsibility.
• Theory X assumes that people are inherently lazy, dislike work, need to be coerced or controlled.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that people have different levels of needs, with physiological needs being at the bottom and self-actualization being at the top.
• Herzberg's Two Factor Theory proposes that there are two types of factors that influence job satisfaction - hygiene factors (extrinsic) and motivation factors (intrinsic).
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that humans have five basic needs - physiological, safety, love/belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization - with higher level needs only being met once lower level ones are satisfied.
• Herzberg's Two Factor Theory proposes two types of factors affecting job satisfaction: hygiene factors (extrinsic) and motivation factors (intrinsic). Hygiene factors include pay, working conditions, company policies, supervision, relationships with peers, status, and security; they must be present but not necessarily sufficient for job satisfaction.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that individuals have different levels of needs, with physiological needs being the most basic and safety needs coming next.
• Love/belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy, family ties, and social groups.
• Esteem needs involve feelings of confidence, achievement, respect from others, and personal freedom.
• Humanistic approach emphasizes the uniqueness of individuals and their potential for personal growth and development.
• Esteem Needs - The need for respect from others and oneself.
• Self-Actualization - The desire to become everything one is capable of becoming.
• Humanistic approach focuses on human potential and growth rather than deficiencies.
• Hygiene factors include salary, working conditions, company policies, supervision, interpersonal relationships, status, security, and personal life.
• Motivation factors include achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth.
• McGregor's Theory X assumes that workers dislike work, avoid responsibility, need close supervision, and require strict control over their behavior.
• McGregor's Theory Y assumes that workers like work, seek out responsibilities, can be trusted, and will exercise self-control if given freedom.
• Behavioral approach views behavior as learned through conditioning and reinforcement.
• Achievement refers to setting goals and achieving them through hard work.
• Herzberg's Two Factor Theory proposes that there are two types of factors influencing job satisfaction: hygiene factors (extrinsic) and motivation factors (intrinsic).
• Esteem needs involve feelings of confidence, achievement, independence, respect from others, and self-respect.
• Self-actualization is the highest level of need, where an individual realizes their full potential and strives to achieve personal growth and fulfillment.
• Theory X assumes that employees dislike work and will avoid it if possible, while Theory Y assumes that employees want to do their best and can be motivated by intrinsic rewards such as recognition or achievement.
• Self-Actualization is the desire to reach one's full potential and achieve personal growth.
• Self-actualization is the highest level of human need according to Maslow.
• Self-actualization is the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy and involves realizing one's full potential and achieving self-fulfillment.
• McGregor's Theory X is based on the assumption that workers are inherently lazy and need close supervision to perform well, while Theory Y assumes that workers are capable of taking responsibility and making decisions without constant monitoring.
• Behavioral Approach views human behavior as a result of environmental stimuli and responses.
• The theory proposes that dissonant cognitions (thoughts) create psychological tension and motivate individuals to reduce this tension by changing their behavior or modifying their thoughts.
• Hygiene factors include working conditions, company policies, salary, status, security, relationships with others, and work itself.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
• Herzberg's Two Factor theory suggests that hygiene factors (such as pay) only prevent dissatisfaction but not satisfaction, while motivators (such as recognition or achievement) lead to job satisfaction.
• Abraham Maslow developed his theory based on research into successful individuals and their motivations.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes physiological needs (basic survival), safety needs (security), love/belonging needs (social connections), esteem needs (self-respect), and self-actualization needs (personal fulfillment).
• Autonomy means being able to make our own choices and decisions.