ICHEM

• Base oil(s) and additives


  Building blocks of lubricants
• Most of the two main categories of industrial and transportation lubrication are made of petroleum oils
• Petroleum oils are refined from crude oil, which was produced by countless billions of tiny microorganisms under pressure and time to become oil
• Hydrocarbon


  A substance that is primarily made up of hydrogen and carbon, with trace amounts of other elements like sulfur and nitrogen
• Two principal types of petroleum oils used for lubricants

  • Paraffinic
  • Naphthenic
• Insolubles


  Indicated by the shade of the spot. A very dark spot indicates a heavy insolubles loading.
• Dispersency


  Indicated by the colour change from the centre to outside of the spot. A distinct colour change indicates reduced dispersency.
• Low TBN


  Also an indication of reduced dispersency
• Paraffinic oils


  • Excellent lubricant, slippery and quite stable at high temperatures, but solidify at low temperatures
  • When oxidized, very little residue is left behind, but what little residue there is is hard and sticky
• Naphthenic oils


  • Can be used at very low temperatures because they are not waxy
  • Typically leave behind more deposits than paraffinic oil, but the residue is soft and fluffy
  • Preferred by compressor manufacturers because the deposits are blown out with the compressed air instead of accumulating on discharge valves
  • Utilized in numerous refrigeration applications due to their excellent cold temperature properties
• Paraffinic oils vs Naphthenic oils

  • Paraffinic oils have higher pour points and less density than naphthenic oils
  • Naphthenic oils are slightly heavier than paraffinic oils, which typically weigh between 7.2 and 7.3 pounds per gallon
• Detergents and dispersants


  Help prevent the buildup of contaminants, sludge, soot, and varnish
• Oxidation inhibitors


  Help prevent lubricant breakdown at high operating temperatures
• Water quality parameters


  • Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
  • Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
  • Toxic Inorganic Substances
  • Toxic Organic Substances
  • Radioactive Substances
• pH


  The negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions, a dimensionless number that indicates the acidic or basic strength of a solution
• Acidic water has more hydrogen ions (H+) while basic water has more hydroxyl (OH) ions
• Anti-wear additives


  Help reduce wear between heavily loaded engine parts
• pHscale


  Runs from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH less than 7 denotes an acidic solution, whereas a pH greater than 7 suggests a base solution
• Pure water has a pH close to 7 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of around 5.6 (slightly acidic)
• Acidity


  A measure of the concentration of acids in a solution. Water's acidity is defined as its quantitative ability to neutralize a strong base to a specific pH level
• Acidity is mainly caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates
• Alkalinity


  Water's alkalinity is defined as its acid-neutralizing capacity, which is constituted of the sum of all titratable bases
• Extreme Pressure (EP) Agents


  • Typically used in gear oils to prevent sliding metal surfaces from seizing under extremely high pressure
  • They are phosphorus, sulfur, or chlorine-based additives that chemically combine with the metal at high local temperatures to form a surface film
  • At high temperatures (160+F), they become reactive and attack yellow surfaces, and can also be slightly corrosive to some metals
• Oxidation Stability


  • Describes the ability of a lubricant to resist oxidation, which is a chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen interacts with the lubricant
  • Variables such as water, acids, catalysts and temperature can influence oxidation and have a negative impact on the lifespan and performance characteristics of a lubricant
  • Good oxidation stability is essential for applications where lubricant is in circulation for long periods without being changed, such as large mechanical systems
• Demulsibility


  • Describes the ability of a lubricant to separate from H₂O
  • Oils with high demulsibility are generally preferred as water can compromise the lubricating properties of a product, leading to issues such as increased energy consumption due to resistance, surface corrosion and contamination caused by the release of abrasive wear particles
  • Additives can be used to improve the demulsibility of a lubricant and prevent it from mixing with water
• Base Number (BN)


  • The measure of the alkalinity of lube oil, which plays a critical role in neutralizing acidic effects of sulphuric by-products of fuel oil
  • The higher the base number of lube oil, the more acid it will be able to neutralize, which helps improve the viscosity coefficient, fight corrosion and resist oxidation
  • Modern marine engines run on BN 30/40/50 for low sulfur oil, while for higher sulfur oil they use BN70/100
  • The TBN for lube oil decreases with use and needs to be changed when it falls below a limit
• Acid Number (TAN)


  A measure of the amount of acidic substances in a sample of oil or fuel, expressed as the quantity of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in milligrams required to neutralize the acids present in one gram of the sample
• Iron and Manganese


  Can be found dissolved as single ions (Fe2+, Mn2+) or undissolved as Fe(OH)3 or Mn(OH)4, respectively. They can also be delivered in colloid form (bound to humic substances)
• Adverse effects of higher Fe and Mn concentrations in drinking water

  • Iron (II) and manganese (II) ions are oxidized to higher forms in a water distribution system and this result in the formation of hydroxide suspensions causing undesirable turbidity and colour of water
  • The presence of iron and manganese bacteria in water supply system causes change in water quality (smell) and bacterial growth in pipes
  • In the case of the occurrence of iron (II) and manganese(II) ions at the consumer's point, iron and manganese are oxidized and precipitated under suitable conditions, resulting in the formation of deposits, out-of-service cleaning with aluminum oxide is necessary
• Hydrogen sulfide


  Colourless gas under normal conditions, also occurs naturally in coal, natural gas, oil, volcanic gases and sulphur springs and lakes. It is a product of the anaerobic decomposition of sulfur-containing organic matter, and other sulfur compounds are nearly always present with the hydrogen sulfide in these natural occurrences. The gas has a characteristic odour of rotten eggs.
• Soluble sulfide salts


  Dissociate into sulfide ions that react with the hydrogen ions in water to form the hydrosulfide ion (HS") or hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)
• Hydrogen sulfide concentrations


  Increase with decreasing pH
• Total Solids (TS)


  Solids exist in water in two forms: solution and suspension. These two forms of solids can be distinguished by passing a water sample through a glass fiber filter. The suspended particles are held on the top of the filter, while the dissolved solids flow through with the water. If a part of the filtered water sample is placed in a tiny dish and subsequently evaporated, the solids remain as a residue.
• TotalDissolvedSolids (TDS)


  Substances that will dissolve in water. The principal ones are the carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium, which are scale forming when heated. The total amount of dissolved matter excluding dissolved gases is determined by evaporation.
• Total Suspended Solids (TSS)


  Substances that exist in water as suspended particles. They are usually mineral or organic in origin. Undissolved matter causes turbidity and can plug lines, deposit in heat exchange equipment, boilers etc.
• Turbidity


  The cloudiness of water, caused by suspended particles in water, such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate elements. It is a measurement of light's ability to travel through water.
• Acidity


  A measure of the concentration of acids in a solution. Water's acidity is defined as its quantitative ability to neutralize a strong base to a specific pH level. Water acidity is mainly caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such ferric and aluminum sulfates.
• Alkalinity


  Water's alkalinity is defined as its acid-neutralizing capacity, which is constituted of the sum of all titratable bases. The presence of hydroxide ions (OH), bicarbonate ions (HCO3), and carbonate ions (CO3), or a combination of two of these ions, in water causes alkalinity.
• Boiler water treatment


  1. External treatment of raw water sources intended for use in a boiler focuses on impurity removal before the water reaches the boiler

  2. Internal boiler treatment focuses on reducing the ability of water to dissolve substances in the boiler and keeping contaminants in the least probable form to create issue until they can be removed from the boiler during boiler blow down
• Coagulation and Flocculation


  A method in which settlement is achieved in a much shorter period by adding aluminum sulfate to the raw water. To eliminate pollutants from raw water, several chemicals are applied in conventional water treatment. While some particles will naturally settle out of standing water (a process known as sedimentation), others will not. A soluble chemical or mixture of chemicals is added to the water to induce particles that are sluggish to settle or non-settling to settle out more quickly. This type of chemical is known as a coagulant, and the process is known as coagulation.