Observations and Interview Procedures & Skills

• Interview


  A method of collecting data about an individual's experiences, covering behavior, opinions, values, emotions, knowledge, sensory perceptions, and demographic characteristics
• Interviews


  • Allow the researcher to talk directly to the participant, making it a more personal way of collecting data compared to other methods
  • Interviews are useful in learning about the underlying reasons behind certain actions and the responses in a questionnaire
  • Interviews are generally easier for participants, though time-consuming for the researcher
• Types of interviews

  • Formal interviews
  • Informal interviews
• Formal interviews


  Planned before they are conducted, require an interview guide
• Informal interviews


  Allow the researcher to talk to the participant conversationally, do not require an interview guide or schedule, usually go with participant observation
• Types of formal interviews

  • Structured interviews
  • Semi-structured interviews
  • Unstructured interviews
• Structured interviews


  Strictly follow the flow and content of the interview guide, best used when the researcher has a full understanding of the topic
• Semi-structured interviews


  Use an interview guide but the researcher may stray from the guide if necessary, best used when the researcher has sufficient background knowledge but needs to learn more
• Unstructured interviews


  Have generally open-ended questions, the interviewer has little control over the respondents' answers, used in ethnographic research and in-depth interviews
• Categories of interview questions

  • Demographic characteristics
  • Behavior
  • Emotions
  • Knowledge
  • Opinions or Values
  • Sensory Perceptions
• After the interview

  1. Check the recording

  2. Transcribe responses verbatim

  3. Write observations about the interview
• Focus group discussion (FGD)


  Like an interview but with several respondents at a time and a moderator facilitating the conversation, used to collect data about a specific topic and record shared experiences
• Observation


  Involves seeing how people behave and interact in a controlled or natural setting, best used when research questions are about behavior in a particular setting and data cannot be accurately elicited through interview
• Types of observation

  • Controlled observation
  • Natural observation
  • Participant observation
• Controlled observation


  Carried out in a laboratory, the researcher determines the place, time, participants, and circumstances using a standard procedure
• Observation


  A method of collecting qualitative data that involves seeing how people behave and interact with one another
• Observation


  • Best used when research questions or objectives are about behavior in a particular setting, and if data cannot be accurately elicited through an interview
  • Allows creating a detailed and lengthy description of what people do in a controlled or natural setting
• Types of observation

  • Controlled observation
  • Natural or unstructured observation
  • Participant observation
• Controlled observation


  Carried out in a laboratory, where the researcher determines the place, time, participants, and circumstances of the observation using a standard procedure
• Controlled observation


  • Provides more reliable and replicable data
  • Easier and faster to conduct
  • Results are quicker to analyze
  • More prone to the Hawthorne effect
• Natural or unstructured observation


  The researcher observes the spontaneous behavior of the participants and does not control the circumstances of observation
• Natural or unstructured observation


  • Greater ecological validity
  • Provides additional information that the researcher may not have originally intended to collect
  • Results may not be generalizable to other contexts or to a wider society
  • Less reliable compared to controlled observation
  • Cause-and-effect relationships between variables are hard to establish
• Participant observation


  The observer takes part in the activities of the group or community
• Participant observation


  • Can be overt (participants know the observer is a researcher) or covert (participants are unaware the observer is a researcher)
  • Helps gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being observed
  • The researcher or observer may lose objectivity as they may become too involved with the group being investigated
  • Difficult to hide the taking of notes or the audio-video recording
  • Covert observation may raise ethical issues
• Complete observer


  Neither seen nor noticed by the participants, minimal possibility of Hawthorne effect
• Complete participant


  Fully engaged with the participants who are unaware that they are being observed, acts like an "undercover" member of the community
• Observer as a participant


  Known and recognized by the participants but has limited interaction with them
• Participant as observer


  Fully engaged with the participants, but still considered a researcher and not a member of the group or community
• Techniques for collecting data through observation

  • Written description
  • Video recording
  • Using photographs or artifacts
• Document analysis


  A data collection method that involves interpreting selected documents through analyzing their content
• Types of documents for analysis

  • Public records (e.g., annual reports, policy manuals, laws, curricula, news articles)
  • Personal documents (e.g., blogs, Facebook posts, diaries, reflection logs)
  • Physical evidence (e.g., flyers, brochures, posters)
• Informed consent


  A form that gives potential participants the information they need to decide whether to participate in a study
• Informed consent forms should use simple and comprehensible language, avoid jargon and technical terms, and avoid first-person pronouns
• Ethical guidelines during data collection


  • Inform participants of their right to refuse participation
  • Guarantee confidentiality and anonymity of participants
  • Secure data to prevent access by unauthorized persons
  • Ensure any tokens given to participants are reasonable and do not cause undue influence