Biology

• Reproduction is an essential process for the survival and continuation of life. Both plants and animals have developed unique reproductive systems to ensure the production of offspring. While there are similarities between the reproductive systems of plants and animals, there are also significant
• Flowers - Flowers are the reproductive structures of plants. - They contain male and female reproductive organs.
• Male Reproductive Organs - The male reproductive organs in plants are called stamens. - Each stamen consists of a filament and an anther.
• Female Reproductive Organs - The female reproductive organs in plants are called pistils or carpels. - Each pistil consists of an ovary, a style, and a stigma.

  -The ovary contains ovules, which are the female gametes.
• Pollination - Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. - It can occur through various means, such as wind, water, or animal pollinators.
• Fertilization - After pollination, the pollen grain germinates on the stigma and grows a pollen tube down the style to reach the ovary.

  -The male gametes then fertilize the ovules, resulting in the formation of seeds.
• Seed Dispersal - Once the seeds are formed, they need to be dispersed to new locations for germination.
• Gonads - The gonads in animals are the primary reproductive organs. - In males, the gonads are the testes, which produce sperm.

  In females, the gonads are the ovaries, which produce eggs.
• Gametes - Animals produce specialized reproductive cells called gametes. - In males, the gametes are sperm, while in females, the gametes are eggs.
• Fertilization - Fertilization in animals can occur internally or externally.
• Internal fertilization occurs when the sperm fertilizes the egg inside the female's body.
• External fertilization occurs when the sperm and eggs are released into the environment, and fertilization occurs outside the body.
• Development -After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo.

  -The embryo undergoes further development, either inside the female's body (viviparity) or outside the female's body (oviparity).
• Parental Care - Some animals provide parental care to their offspring, ensuring their survival and growth. - This can include protecting the eggs or young, providing food, or teaching them essential skills.
• Sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of male and female gametes, resulting in the formation of a new individua
• Pollination - Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ (anther) to the female reproductive organ (stigma).
• Fertilization - After pollination, the pollen grain germinates on the stigma and grows a pollen tube.

  -This tube carries the male gametes (sperm cells) to the ovary, where fertilization takes place. - Fertilization leads to the embryo.
• Seed Formation - The fertilized ovule develops into a seed, which contains the embryo, endosperm, and protective seed coat.

  -The seed is dispersed and can germinate under favorable conditions, giving rise to a new plant.
• Asexual reproduction in plants does not involve the fusion of gametes and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.
• Vegetative Propagation - This method involves the production of new plants from vegetative parts such as stems, roots, or leaves.

  
• Budding - Budding is the formation of a small outgrowth (bud) on the parent plant, which eventually develops into a new individual.

  
• Fragmentation - Fragmentation occurs when a parent plant breaks into fragments, and each fragment can grow into a new plant.

  
• Mating - Animals engage in mating behaviors to

  bring the male and

  female reproductive

  organs in close

  contact.
• Fertilization - During mating, the male transfers sperm into the female's reproductive tract.

  -Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, forming a zygote.
• Embryonic Development - The zygote undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo.

  -The embryo may develop inside the female's body (internal fertilization) or outside (external fertilization), depending on the species.
• Live Birth or Egg Laying - Some animals give birth to live young, while others lay eggs. - Live birth is common in mammals, while egg laying is observed in reptiles, birds, and some fish.
• Parthenogenesis - Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an unfertilized egg develops into an embryo.
• The sporophyte generation is the dominant phase in most plants and is responsible for producing spores through meiosis.
• The sporophyte generation is the dominant phase in most plants and is responsible for producing spores through meiosis.

  These spores develop into the gametophyte generation, which produces gametes through mitosis.

  The fusion of gametes leads to the formation of a new sporophyte, completing the life cycle.
• The process of seed development begins with pollination, where pollen grains are transferred from the male reproductive organ (stamen) to the female reproductive organ (pistil).

  Fertilization occurs when the pollen tube delivers sperm cells to the ovule, resulting in the formation of a zygote. The zygote then develops into an embryo, which eventually becomes a seed.
• When conditions are favorable, the seed undergoes germination, which is the process of the embryo growing and emerging from the seed coat. Germination is triggered by factors such as water, temperature, and light.

  Once the seed germinates, the embryo develops into a seedling, which grows into a mature plant through cell division and elongation.

  Plant growth occurs primarily at the tips of roots and shoots, where specialized cells called meristems continuously divide and differentiate into various tissues.
• Fertilization in animals occurs when a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote. This process can happen internally or externally, depending on the species.

  In some animals, fertilization is followed by the formation of a protective structure, such as an eggshell or amniotic sac, to support embryonic development.
• The three primary germ layers in animals are the ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer).

  These layers develop into various structures, such as the nervous system, muscles, and digestive system.
• Animals may undergo metamorphosis, a dramatic transformation in body structure, during post-embryonic development.

  Examples of metamorphosis include the transformation of a tadpole into a frog or a caterpillar into a butterfly.
• Photosynthesis - Plants use chlorophyll, a pigment found in their leaves, to capture sunlight.

  -Through photosynthesis, they convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (a type of sugar) and oxygen. - Glucose is used as a source of energy for the plant.
• Roots - Plants have roots that absorb water and minerals from the soil. - These minerals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are essential for plant growth and development.
• Stomata - Plants have tiny openings called stomata on their leaves. - Stomata allow for the exchange of gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, with the environment.
• Transportation - Plants have a vascular system that transports water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant
• -Xylem vessels transport water and minerals from the roots to the leaves. - Phloem vessels transport sugars from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
• Ingestion - Animals consume food through their mouths. - Different animals have different feeding habits, such as herbivores (plant- eaters), carnivores (meat- eaters), and omnivores (eat both plants and animals).