Warfare

• Entire overview of British experience of warfare DEPTH studies (A Level Edexcel History) - A/A* worthy revision
• Written by elliejadeblake
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• HISTORY – THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE OF WARFARE REVISION
• DEPTH ONE: Britain & The French Wars
• Relative Strengths


  • French population twice that of Britain's
  • Britain 2nd most urbanised country in Europe
  • More modern economy, fast-developing Industrial revolution
• Pre-revolutionary France


  • Creaking economy
  • Overseas expanding empires
  • Less prepared BUT powerful Navy
  • Sophisticated financial system to back a war effort
• Britain


  • Transformed agriculture
  • Transformed manufacturing
• Royal Navy


  • Supported overseas campaigns (India/Peninsular war)
  • Blockaded French ports to strange trade / protected British commerce
  • Fleet in home waters meant protection from invasion (no full scale landing attempted)
  • Britain's RN outnumbered the French
  • Horatio Nelson – aggressive / iconic commander, influenced French naval strategy
• British Army


  • Pre French wars - in a poor state, defeated in America, low morale
  • Much smaller than conscript French army
  • Yet willing to fight Peripheral campaigns – e.g. Peninsular war
  • Even after the Russian disaster he could muster 1 million men. BUT, left the Peninsular battles to generals who were outmatched by Wellington
  • In the final overthrow, Britain was a part of a larger coalition (Russians/Prussians/Austrians) & had victory at Waterloo
• The Home Front


  • Industry grew in sectors (coal, iron, textiles)
  • Cotton exports rose (even to France), Britain were supplying French with cloth for uniforms
  • Continental system trading embargoes unsuccessful – smuggling rife
  • But with income tax, rose food prices & unemployment *jobless men joined army*
  • Farmers sold home-produced wheat at high prices, reliance on high prices leading to protectionist Corn Laws of 1815
  • Britain's agricultural sector had been modernised
  • Literature: Showed contrasting effects of war: Jane Austen novels (Glamour/honour) VS Charlotte Bronte's Shirley (impact of war to a cloth-making community)
• INTRO: B+F allies post world wars, but before more often rivals than friends
• Until 16th c – English monarchs held territory in France
• Late 18th c – competing for colonies, trade & diplomatic influence in Europe
• France aided America in their war of independence from British rule
• Managing national debt


  Through borrowing & selling gov. stocks = finance larger scale military expenditure
• Income Tax (1798)
• Coalitions – over French wars, gave £50mn to its allies & loaned Austria a further £4.6mn
• Navy protected maritime trade & colonies Inc. Canada & parts of India taken from the French
• "[Our soldiers] are the very scum of the earth and it really is wonderful that we should have made them into the fine fellow that they are"
• Prelude to Peninsular War


  1. Napoleon began a new campaign in Europe in 1805

  2. Swiftly defeated Austria, Russia, Prussia & considered Britain

  3. Nelson's victory at Trafalgar defeated hopes of seaborne invasion, tried to strangle Britain's economy with the "Continental System"

  4. Napoleon occupied Iberian Peninsula in 1809, claiming "Above all Portugal must be wrestled from the influence of England"

  5. French forces moved into Portugal to stop the British using the ports

  6. Portugal was Britain's oldest ally

  7. French were vulnerable- this was the best opportunity for the British to attack on land. 9,000 British soldiers went to the Iberian Peninsula to exploit Joseph's failures
• Initial successes & setbacks

  1. Arrive in Portugal July 1808 (British army, 5,000 Portuguese + extra troops commanded by Sir John Moore)

  2. French defeated at Vimeiro (August)

  3. Wellington now outranked – New commander in chief *Sir Hew Dalrymple* & *Sir Harry Burrard*

  4. Dalrymple agrees to Convention of Sintra – French troops to be evacuated in British ships & keep their loot

  5. Wellington annoyed, returns to Britain

  6. Official enquiry launched – Exonerated all 3 commanders

  7. Wellington returns April 1809 – Full command
• Wellingtons tactics


  • Invasion/retreat, sieges/attrition – against experienced French generals
• Wellington's Character


  • As commander, known for attention to detail
  • Precisely planning & picking battle locations that gave him advantage
  • Alienated the local population (should be supplied from Britain by RN)
  • Rather aloof & a strict disciplinarian
• Wellington's Background


  • Arthur Wellesley, born in Ireland 1769
  • Joined army 1787 & purchased commissions
  • Proved a capable solider in combat In Flanders
  • Served in India, brother promoted to major general
  • Given command of BEF in 1808 in Portugal
  • 1809 became Viscount Wellington
• 1 year of active service /No experience

  1. Had been left with Moore during enquiry

  2. Napoleon replaced Joseph / defeated Spanish & entered Madrid

  3. Moore outnumbered, lingered too long – forced to retreat to Corunna for evacuation

  4. Reached port on 11th January , ships took 4 more days – so French attacked

  5. Moore shot & killed
• Explaining his success


  • Iberian geography, local allies (Portugese/Spanish & guerrillas), tactics & personality
  • To avoid defeat – often chose rearguard action (small force remains/main army withdraws)
  • Train to fire volleys & reload rapidly (Brown Bess – 4 a minute from an expert)
  • Reverse hill slope tactic (forcing enemy up hill without protection / easy firing)
  • Wellington's supply line – secure from Lisbon (with RN support) VS French = long across rugged terrain
  • Wellington's firepower – Volleyfire (successful against French shock attack)
• Talavera & Torres Vedras


  1. To protect supply lines, Wellington built massive fortification works (across a peninsula north of Lisbon)

  2. Would be secure behind them , be supplied by the sea

  3. Local people had fled to Lisbon – leaving deserted villages = Wellington "Scorched Earth" Policy

  4. French were harassed by guerrillas / cold & hungry soldiers (British fine behind these lines)

  5. Cracked down on slackness, disciplining solders
• Fuentes De Onoro


  1. 1811 – Wellington had moved into Spain – from Portugal to besiege Almeida

  2. French (commander Massena) tried to relieve it

  3. 3rd May – French attacked them at Fuentes De Onoro
• Wellington on the Offensive

  1. 1812 – Napoleon invades Russia with ½ million men

  2. He pulls out veteran troops from Spain / Britain not outnumbered finally / Wellington could enforce an aggressive approach
• Ciudad Rodrigo & Badajoz


  1. Attacked the border fortresses here

  2. Weeks of siege work – artillery to blast breaches / hand-to-hand fighting

  3. Aftermath of victory as violent as assault – townspeople killed, raped, robbed

  4. Thomas Picton – helped restore disciples. Looters flogged not hanged

  5. Wellington showed clemency, had seen & cried at huge losses (earning respect)
• Salamanca & Victoria


  1. Wellington days without sleeps / insisted on making orders in person / constantly on the saddle / slept in his clothes

  2. Battle of Salamanca "Wellington master of manoeuvres and concealment" – French general

  3. Used hills to shield his army & took French by surprise

  4. French were scattered / had heavy losses

  5. Took Madrid, Wellington a national hero

  6. Summer 1813 – French fallen back to Victoria, allies attacked front & rear (stopping retreat)

  7. This French defeat finished the war in Spain – French retreated
• Battle of Talavera


  1. Spanish ill equipped / let down by leaders (led by General Cuesta – who failed to appear)

  2. Wellington unable to fully exploit narrow victory

  3. Portugal more reliable ally

  4. Had Viscount Beresford retrain Portuguese – 1810 integrated to own army

  5. French casualties = 7,300. Wellesley's losses = 5,400 (25% of his entire force and, with a fresh army under Soult threatening to cut his lines of communication, compelled to withdraw his army towards Portugal)

  6. Lasted 3 days

  7. Near disaster: Untried 7th division in open / Light division performed a withdrawal (using square formation) – soldiers face outwards / attack from all sides

  8. Post Battle, French slipped most troops out (annoyed Wellington – no success unless he led)

  9. BUT, Massena had failed & Wellington had done good
• The Hundred Days


  1. 1814 – Wellington invades Southern France

  2. Invaded – Napoleon forced to abdicate in April / In exile – Island of Elba

  3. February 1815 – Napoleon escapes, enters France with 600 soldiers

  4. Troops sent to arrest him, joined him (& Marshal Ney & More)

  5. Entered Paris as emperor again

  6. European powers declared war – Wellington began new campaign
• June 1815, 2 Battles: Quatre Bras & Ligny

  1. Attacked at Quatre Bras by Ney, but held position

  2. At Ligny, Prussians lost to Napoleon (pulled back) / Wellington also withdrew
• The Battle of Waterloo

  1. 18th June 1815

  2. Battlefield – 4 miles across with 3 strong points (inc. Chateau at Hougomount)

  3. Allies. 68,000 / 156 guns (+ Blucher support) VS. 72,000 / 246

  4. Napoleon's problems: Unwell / unable to sit for long, Attacking uphill, Ground was waterlogged (delays in moving – wait until 11am)

  5. French began with assault on Hougomount / then infantry attack – BOTH REPULSED

  6. French heavy fire then caused some Dutch & Belgian units to flee

  7. Wellington on the move / Napoleon static, Napoleon leaves ill & Ney in command

  8. Wellington moves troops out of artillery reach / Ney thinks they are retreating, sends ALL cavalry in pursuit

  9. Form squares, volley fire horsemen / Napoleon returns, news that Prussians are about to join

  10. Marshal Grouchy (30,000 men) supposed to prevent this & failed

  11. Napoleon's final move = committed his elite guards

  12. Wellington – The General: Returned a hero (and a political career), Newly restored King Louis XV111 fled to England, Led Western coalition army, Planned to cooperate with Prussians in the east (Blucher), Russians & Austrians not ready to join, Didn't have many Peninsular veterans / untrusting of Belgian & Dutch

  13. Marched uphill, under heavy fire, wavered & British broke them

  14. Could see them running / Prussians arriving

  15. French army disintegrated – Fleeing / surrendering

  16. Napoleon escaped to Paris – HE HAD LOST
• Transformed the image of the British soldier – "scum" enjoyed a new respect
• He said Napoleon came "in the old fashion" & had been dealt with in the same way