Gender

• Gender schema theory (GST)


  Research support
• Martin and Halverson (1983) study

  • Children under 6 were more likely to recall gender-appropriate photographs than gender-inappropriate ones when tested a week later
  • Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them
• Martin and Halverson's findings

  Supports gender schema theory which predicts that children under 6 would do this (in contrast with Kohlberg who said this happens in older children)
• One limitation is that gender identity probably develops earlier
• Zosuls et al. (2009) study


  • Analysed twice-weekly reports from 82 mothers on their children's language from 9-21 months and videotapes of the children at play
  • Children labelled themselves as a 'boy' or 'girl' (gender identity), on average, at 19 months almost as soon as they began to communicate
• Zosuls et al.'s finding

  Suggests that Martin and Halverson may have underestimated children's ability to use gender labels for themselves
• However, for Martin and Halverson the ages are averages rather than absolutes. It is the sequence of development that is more important
• This suggests that Zosuls et al's finding is not a fundamental criticism of the theory
• Gender schema theory


  Can account for cultural differences
• Cherry (2019) argument


  • Gender schema not only influence how people process information but also what counts as culturally-appropriate gender behaviour
  • In societies where perceptions of gender have less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to acquire non-standard gender stereotypes
• This contrasts with some other explanations of gender development, such as psychodynamic theory (next spread)
• Gender identity is more driven by unconscious biological urges
• Gender schema theory (GST)

  Suggests that a child's understanding of gender changes with age
• Gender schema theory (GST)

  • Like Kohlberg's theory, it is also cognitive-developmental, i.e. thinking changes with age
  • Suggests that children actively structure their own learning of gender, in contrast with social learning theory which suggests children passively observe and imitate role models
• Gender schema theory (GST) proposes that gender schema develop after gender identity
• Gender schema


  Mental constructs that develop via experience (with some basic, limited ones present from birth), used to organise our knowledge of gender and gender-appropriate behaviour
• Gender schema development


  1. Child establishes gender identity (around 2-3 years)

  2. Child begins to look around for further information to develop their schema
• Gender schema theory suggests the search for gender-appropriate information occurs much earlier than Kohlberg suggested
• Gender-appropriate schema expand over time to include a range of behaviours and personality traits based on stereotypes
• By 6 years of age, children have acquired a rather fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender
• Children


  • Pay more attention to, and have a better understanding of, the schema appropriate to their own gender (ingroup) than those of the opposite gender (outgroup)
  • Ingroup identity bolsters the child's level of self-esteem as there is always a tendency to judge ingroups more positively
• At around 8 years of age children develop elaborate schema for both genders
• Cognitive-developmental approach


  Gender development parallels intellectual development
• Stages of gender development in Kohlberg's theory

  1. Stage 1: Gender identity, from about 2 years old

  2. Stage 2: Gender stability, from about 4 years old

  3. Stage 3: Gender constancy, from about 6 years old
• Gender constancy


  The start of a search for gender-appropriate role models
• Kohlberg's theory has cross-cultural support, suggesting the cognitive changes described may be universal and therefore biological
• Bussey and Bandura claim observation, imitation and identification with role models play a more influential role in gender development than cognitive structures
• The development of gender-related concepts in the maturing child likely involves an interaction of nature and nurture
• Klinefelter's syndrome


  Caused by an extra X chromosome (XXY)
• 10% of cases are identified prenatally but up to 66% may not be aware of it
• Diagnosis often comes about accidentally via a medical examination for some unrelated condition
• Physical effects of XXY chromosome structure

  • Reduced body hair compared to a typical male
  • Some breast development at puberty (gynaecomastia)
  • Underdeveloped genitals
  • More susceptible to health problems that are usually associated with females, such as breast cancer
• Turner's syndrome


  XO chromosomal structure, caused by an absence of one of the two X chromosomes leading to 45 rather than 46 chromosomes
• 1 in 5000 females have Turner's syndrome
• Physical characteristics of Turner's syndrome

  • No menstrual cycle as their ovaries fail to develop, leaving them sterile
  • A broad 'shield' chest and no developing of breasts at puberty
  • Characteristic low-set ears and a 'webbed' neck
  • Hips are not much bigger than the waist
• Psychological characteristics of Turner's syndrome

  • Higher-than-average reading ability
  • Lower-than-average performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks
  • Tendency to be socially immature
• Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome

  • Poorly developed language skills and reading ability
  • Passive, shy and lacking interest in sexual activity
  • Tend not to respond well to stressful situations
  • Problems with what are called executive functions, such as problem-solving
• Another physical characteristic of Klinefelter's syndrome is additional breast tissue and soft contours associated with a more feminine appearance
• One strength of the evidence is that it supports the role of testosterone
• Wang et al. (2000) gave 227 hypogonadal men (men with low levels of testosterone) testosterone therapy for 180 days

  Testosterone replacement improved sexual function, libido and mood, and significantly increased muscle strength in the sample