3.2

• Environmental Design


  Involves what a neighbourhood looks like and how it is designed
• Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)

  A theory developed by Jeffrey, based on the idea that crime results from the opportunities presented by the physical environment – therefore, we should be able to alter the environment so crime is less able to occur
• Towns and cities should consist of strong lighting, low level bushes, shrubbery and fences
• Defensible space


  Areas where there are clear boundaries so it is obvious who has the right to be there. They have low crime rates because of four key features: territoriality, surveillance, a safe image, a protected location
• Indefensible space


  Areas where crime is more likely to occur, in 'confused' areas of public space. They belong to no-one, are cared for by no-one and are observed by no-one
• Territoriality


  The environment encourages a sense of ownership among residents – the feeling that it is their territory and they control it
• Natural surveillance


  Features of buildings such as easily viewed entrance lobbies and street level windows allow residents to identify and observe strangers
• Safe image


  Building designs should give the impression of a safe neighbourhood where residents look after each other
• Safe location


  Neighbourhoods located in the middle of a wider crime free area are insulated from the outside world by a 'moat' of safety
• Newman found that 55% of all the crimes committed occurred in public spaces such as hallways, lifts, stairwells and lobbies, because no one felt as though they 'owned' them
• Damilola Taylor was killed in a concrete stairwell in a condemned housing estate
• Coleman concluded that the poor design of many blocks produced higher rates of crime and antisocial behaviour, and found that three design features encouraged crime: anonymity, lack of surveillance and easy escape
• On the Lisson Green estate in West London, the removal of overhead walkways led to a 50% reduction in crime
• Home Office research found a 30% lower burglary rate in Secured by Design houses
• Gated Lanes


  Lockable gates installed to prevent offenders from gaining access to alleyways, used to prevent burglaries, fly tipping, antisocial behaviour, dog fouling, and create a safe space for children to play
• Gated lanes provide a physical barrier, increase guardianship and surveillance, increase residents' sense of territoriality, and suggest the space is cared about and does not tolerate crime
• The average cost of gated lanes was £728 per gate and the average benefit was over twice that cost (£2.19 for every £1 spent)
• Limitations of Gated Lanes

  • They do not work against criminals who live in the gated area
  • In neighbourhoods where the residents don't know or trust each other, they may be less likely to get together to install gates, or may not take responsibility for them
  • There may be difficulties installing gates if the area is a public right of way, or if it has several owners who all need to agree
  • Can restrict access for emergency services and refuse collectors
• Panopticon prison design


  The building has a tower at the centre, from which it is possible to see each cell in which a prisoner is kept. Prisoners can be seen but cannot communicate with the prison officers or other prisoners. The design ensures a sense of permanent visibility that ensures the functioning of power
• Surveillance theory


  In today's society, self-surveillance has become an important way of achieving social control. We know we might be being watched – for example, by CCTV cameras – so we monitor and control our behaviour ourselves
• Supermax prisons are the most secure levels of custody, with the objective of providing long-term, segregated housing for prisoners who represent the highest security risks
• HMP Berwyn in the UK is the country's biggest prison, holding 2106 prisoners, with the accommodation divided into smaller units for easier management of the inmates
• The UK government has promised to increase prison building, with a commitment of £4 billion to build a total of 18,000 prison places
• Bastøy prison in Norway


  A 'human ecological prison' where prisoners live in houses that are set in a self-sustaining village, rather than cells. This left realist approach produces a very low re-offending rate of 20% compared to 60% in the UK
• Antisocial Behaviour Orders (ASBOs)


  Civil orders introduced in 1998 to deal with low level anti-social behaviour, where breaching the order was a criminal offence punishable by up to 5 years in prison
• 58% of people issued with ASBOs between 2000 and 2013 breached their conditions, and over 10,000 orders were breached repeatedly
• Labelling theory


  Labelling a person as a criminal or deviant could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the individual internalises the label as part of their identity and begins to live up to it
• Criminal Behaviour Orders (CBOs)

  Introduced in 2014 to deal with seriously anti-social individuals, with both negative requirements (forbidding certain actions) and positive requirements (requiring certain actions)
• Breaching a CBO can mean up to 5 years in prison for adults or two years detention for under 18s
• Labelling theorists


  Suggest ASBOs become a badge of honour for some young offenders, reinforcing, rather than reducing their offending behaviour and leading to repeat offending
• Criminal Behaviour Orders (CBOs)

  Replaced ASBOs as a result of criticisms, deal with seriously anti-social individuals who cause harassment, alarm or distress to others
• Injunctions


  • Aim to deal with low level nuisance and annoyance, Breaching an injunction can mean up to two years in prison for adults or a three-month detention order for under-18s
• Criminal Behaviour Orders (CBOs)

  • Last for two years at least for adults and one to two years for under 18s, Breaching a CBO can mean up to 5 years in prison for adults or two years detention for under 18s, Have both negative and positive requirements
• Negative Requirements


  Forbid a person from doing something, such as going to certain places, seeing certain people or engaging in certain activities
• Positive Requirements


  Require a person to do something positive to improve their behaviour, e.g. join a drug treatment programme
• Token economy


  Aims to achieve social control by rewarding desirable behaviours with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards
• Desirable behaviours in a token economy

  • Obeying the rules
  • Interacting positively with staff and other inmates
  • Staying drug free
  • Engaging in 'purposeful activity'
• Incentives and Earned Privileges (IEPs)

  Rewards in UK prisons for desirable behaviour in a token economy
• Token economies work while inmates are in the institution, but when the reinforcement stops, the desired behaviours disappear
• Token economy programmes make prisoners more manageable while in prison, but there is a risk that their behaviour is being modified to suit the institution rather than to meet their rehabilitation needs