Social Impact of Religious and Economic Changes

• What religious changes were introduced during the Duke of Somerset's role as Lord Protector?

  1547:

  Royal Visitation- Commissioners sent to bishoprics to examine the State of the Clergy, doctrine and practices of the Church, Episcopal authority was suspended until completion

  July:

  Issuing of Royal Injunctions in which it was stated that the Clergy should preach in English, attacked Church appearance related to Catholicism

  Book of Homilies and Paraphrases- The Book of Homilies and Erasmus' Paraphrases to be included in every Church, the former contained Protestant Sermons by Cranmer and stated his belief in Jurisdiction by Faith Alone

  4 Nov- 24 Dec Parliament:

  Chantries Act- Revived Act of Dissolution, condemned all prayers for the dead

  Act of Six Articles repealed- Left Church without official doctrine

  Treason Act repealed- People could discuss religion freely without facing negative repercussions, radicals began to spread their views and destroy Catholic imagery (iconoclasm)

  Jan-Mar 1548:

  Proclamations issued to dampen unrest, transubstantiation was still in force

  11 Feb:

  All images to be removed from Churches- met with little opposition

  24 Apr:

  Proclamation stating only authorised clergy to preach

  23 Sept:

  No preaching until new liturgy introduced

  Dec:

  First Prayer Book- English services, Communion in both ways, Clerical Marriage, Worship of Saints discouraged (not banned), Unclear on Purgatory, traditional robes allowed, Transubstantiation, Fast and Holy days- more ambiguous and moderate

  Jan 1549:

  Act of Uniformity- Confirmed the First Book of Common Prayer as official liturgy, led to some opposition such as the Western Rebellion- Book introduced on 10 June (Whitsunday)

  
  

  Somerset->Northumberland Period:

  Nov 1549:

  Parliament removes laws against clerical marriage and places all ecclesiastical courts in the King's name

  25 Dec:

  Ordered destruction of any remaining images
• What religious changes were introduced during the Duke of Northumberland's role as Lord President of the Council?

  Jan 1550:

  Introduction of a new reformed Ordinal, faced some opposition due to dislike for having to swear an oath to saints

  Nov:

  Removal of Stone altars, replaced by wood as it is a plainer material and thus reflects the Protestant changes

  Jan 1552:

  New Treason Act- It is now an offence to question the Royal Supremacy or articles in the faith of the Church

  Second Book of Common Prayer- Removed all traces of Catholicism, established a Eucharist ceremony in line with Calvin's belief in a Spiritual presence, removed prayers for the dead, removed vestments, opposed by some reformers as there was a need to kneel during Communion

  Apr:

  Second Act of Uniformity- Enforced the Second Book of Common Prayer, became an offence for both the Clergy and the Laity to not attend Church of England services

  Nov:

  'Black Rubric' Proclamation- Kneeling to receive the Communion was for the sake of good order

  24 Nov:

  42 Articles Submitted- Issued 9 June 1553 but never became Parliamentary law, based on Cranmer's ideas, strongly Protestant, basis for Elizabeth's 39 Articles, a want to destroy Idolatry

  1553:

  Short Catechism produced without the permission of Parliament
• How did some of these changes impact English Society?

  Ending Prayers for the Dead- W.K Jordan: 'most shattering and irreversible action of the reformation of England', the Catholics' soul and salvation were in peril which had a large impact on those who had relied on it

  Chantries had an integral role in community life. In total, 3,000 chantries, 90 colleges, 110 hospitals and thousands of Confraternities were dissolved across every county. They also confiscated thousands of minor endowments. Very rarely, the chantries were turned into schools or the money was redirected into their Parishes.

  Confraternities were largely overlooked by Government but was missed by the people.

  Roughly 20% of Londoners identified as Protestant by 1547, therefore 80% were not

  Money in wills:

  - Evidence is not too plentiful and should be approached with caution, but it is relatively clear that less money was left to parishes in the people's wills, likely due to too much government interference and the belief that the money would be confiscated anyway:

  Haigh- 70% of Northern wills 1540-6 left money, decreased to 32% during Edward's reign.

  Lincolnshire and Huntingdonshire- 66% in 1545-> 10% in 1552

  - 1550: Pace of reform was hampered by uncooperative public opinion in the eyes of Hooper

  Jan 1553: Crown started to confiscate Church Plate
• What influenced Somerset in regards to religious change?

  - Somerset was an advanced Protestant, but was focussed on other aspects (i.e. Foreign Policy) more

  - Saw a significant shift in the rituals of the Church but was doctrinally constrained

  - Initially associated with Reformers such as Hooper and Bucer and was seen as a 'co-religionist' by Calvin however, he later lost this support

  - Removed very few Bishops and did not persecute anyone for heretical beliefs

  - Was more so an Erastian Protestant

  - Only introduced change when politically possible
• What influenced Northumberland in regards to religious change?

  - His religious position was more of an 'enigma' (John Guy)

  - He declared himself a Catholic at crucial points (upon his death, the coup against Somerset)

  - Above all, a politician

  - Religious pendulum swung towards Protestantism

  - Reform had significant political benefits

  - Would've increased the Bond of Affection

  - Saw the religious future with evangelical protestants

  - Power and money would lie with the stripping of the Catholic Church
• Who were some other Key Figures when it pertained to Religious Reform?

  Archbishop Cranmer:

  - Towering Religious Figure in English Reformation

  - Could edge towards his own theological position under Edward

  - Homilies (1547) asserted the Lutheran belief of justification by faith alone

  - European reformers clearly shaped his documents

  - Had an unshakeable belief in the Royal Supremacy

  Hooper:

  - Belligerent leader of the Evangelicals

  - Aimed to 'sweep away' Catholicism and vigorously enforce Radical Protestantism

  - Was enormously energetic and committed

  - Every day, he would invite 4 people to share his table

  - As a bishop, he conducted 'the most searching and efficient visitations of his diocese'

  - Spearheaded the push towards radical Protestantism

  - Gained the favour of both Edward and Northumberland

  - However, his uncompromising nature led to conflicts with other Protestants

  - For example, he clashed with Cranmer and Ridley over Ceremonial garments when ordained

  Edward VI:

  - A well-known Protestant figure who was seen as a religious force to be reckoned with

  - Deeply embroiled in the Second Book of Common Prayer, the most important religious change, given his lack of satisfaction with the First edition

  - Was also involved in Parliamentary legislation with the Second Act of Uniformity

  - A driving force behind the persecution of Mary

  - Favoured radical reformers

  - Influenced by figures such as Richard Coxe and Catherine Parr, his tutor and stepmother respectively
• How did the Clergy impact Religious reform?

  - Preachers were able to foster 'pockets of Protestantism' primarily in areas such as London, East Anglia, Newcastle and Exeter

  - Ports were also known to be a hotbed of Protestantism

  - One large obstacle when it pertained to reform was a lack of preachers

  - The Prayer Book and Book of Homilies were fundamental in assisting with the growth of Evangelicalism within the country

  - Somerset had a less evangelical clergy than Northumberland: 8 Bishops were undecided, 9 were reformers and 10 were Catholic

  - Under Northumberland, active reformers were appointed to the sees of London, Gloucester, Rochester, Chichester, Norwich, Exeter, Worcester and Durham

  - Having Protestant Bishops did not necessarily mean that the Clergy was effective, however. For example, Bishop Hooper looked into his own diocese: 10/311 were unable to recite the Lord's Prayer and 171/311 could not recite the 10 Commandments
• How did European Reformers impact Religious reform?

  - During Edward's Reign, a total of 40 European reformers came to live in England: they were mostly invited by Archbishop Cranmer

  - They were used to provide their ideas and preaching talents to England's Reformation

  - They influenced the direction of religious change, often through pressure

  - The Second Book of Common Prayer was influenced by Bucer's critique on the First

  - Cranmer was also in correspondence with Melanchthon, the leader of Lutheranism

  - Calvin also kept a critical eye on developments

  
  

  Key European Reformers:

  Martin Bucer- Arrived March 1549, was appointed to the Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge

  Peter Martyr- Arrived December 1547, became Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford, asserted the end of Transubstantiation

  Bernard Ochino- Arrived with Martyr, appointed to Prebend at Canterbury
• How did a lack of opposition impact Religious reform?

  - The lower clergy was rarely persecuted

  - Made Government's job easier

  - The Western Rebellion was successfully repressed in 1549

  Key oppositionists:

  Stephen Gardiner (Bishop of Winchester)- Opposed services in English, the allowance of image breaking and doctrinal change, began to express these views publicly in 1548 and was sent to the tower

  Edmund Bonner (Bishop of London)- Only opposed publicly when the Privy Council instructed him to preach about the Holy Communion, preached at St. Pauls about transubstantiation and was imprisoned

  - Both were deprived of their bishoprics and were replaced by reformers
• How did greed impact Religious reform?

  - The Crown wanted to extract the remaining wealth of the Church

  - They conducted a survey in 1552 of all the Bishops and Clergy that were worth at least £50, they discovered that the total untapped wealth of the Church was £1,087,978 (Bishoprics=£606,511, Ecclesiastical offices= £481,467)

  - In 1553, Northumberland began an attack on resources worth half of all the monastic wealth and much more than the Churches

  - There was a doctrinal shift towards transubstantiation that made the place, vestments, and other objects of Mass redundant

  - Expropriation was ordered in 1553, but there was not enough time to collect and sell or melt the metals before Edward's death.

  - They believed that reallocating resources on the appointment of new bishops would assist in acquiring bishops' wealth

  - For example, when Bishop Tunstall of Durham was imprisoned in October 1552, it was proposed that Durham was to be allocated £1,320, the new see of Newcastle would get £665, and the surplus of £2,000 would be allocated to the Crown: however, this was not enforced due to Edward's death
• How did intellectualism develop during the reign of Edward VI?

  - A contest between evangelical humanism (associated with those who identified with Erasmus' teachings) and more radical forms of Protestantism.

  - Moderate humanism had some influence but had been on the decline since the 1530s

  - Archbishop Cranmer was influenced by humanism

  - The 1547 Injunctions meant that Erasmus' Paraphrases had to be in every Church

  - Sir John Cheke was one of Edward's tutors and was also a humanist

  - Nicholas Udall (a humanist writer) had been encouraged by the Government

  - William Cecil, the junior Secretary of State in Northumberland's administration, encouraged humanist scholars at Cambridge

  - Peter Martyr and Martin Bucer were influenced by Humanism.

  - Philip Melanchthon, the leading continental moderate reformer, was invited to be Bucer's replacement

  - A more militant and less comprehensive approach to reform gained pace under Northumberland due to Cranmer and his strained relationship with him.

  - Northumberland was closer to radical figures such as John Hooper, who Cranmer found divisive.

  - The death of Edward VI destroyed both contending groups

  - Religious change had a profound impact

  - Disorientating experience for the people
• How did Somerset deal with the economy?

  - No attempt at ending the debasement of the coinage given that it helped raise funds for the expensive wars against Scotland (it raised a total of £537,000)

  - The lack of ending debasement only exacerbated the issue of inflation and the reduction in real

  - There was a poor harvest in 1548 that also worsened inflation

  - The campaigns in Scotland cost a total of £580,393 between the years 1547-9.

  - There were no reforms of Government finances.

  - Efforts to control enclosure did little other than raise expectations of the poor and inconvenience landowners

  - His special tax on sheep also led to major opposition
• How did Northumberland deal with the economy?

  - Reduced debasement in 1550 and decided to end it in April 1551, though the replacement of coins with the correct amount of precious metal did not occur until 1560.

  - Collapse of the Antwerp market 1551-2, caused issues in England

  - Treaty of Boulogne in 1550 meant that England returned Boulogne to France for £133,333, garrisons were also withdrawn from Scotland, this being incredibly expensive and thus helped to save money in the long term

  - Debts were reduced from £300,000 in 1550 to £180,000 in 1553 through the selling of Crown Lands

  - Not full confidence in the strength of the economy, but it was massively improved
• Was the reign of Edward VI free from rebellion?

  - The year of 1549 had many minor uprisings- around 23 counties were impacted: the main two were the Western Rebellion and Kett's Rebellion

  - There was no police force and so the fabric of Tudor society was weak

  - There was propaganda surrounding the idea the 'many-headed monster' which was seen as irrational, stupid and fickle

  - Commoners did not often get the opportunity to voice their concerns and so violence and disruption was often the only outlet available to do so

  - This violence was mainly targeted at objects related to the rebels' anger as opposed to individuals or the government

  - The laity acknowledged the fact that they were viewed as subordinate and didn't attempt to overturn the order established by the Great Chain of Being

  - Rebellions were more so a cry for help

  - The first response was not to incite violence but rather negotiate in order to suppress the rebellion
• What were the origins of the Western Rebellion?

  Context:

  - Cornwall mostly relied on meagre profits from tin mining

  - Known for their religious and social Conservativism

  - Felt more hostility towards their gentry than other parts of England

  - Had rebelled before (Cornish Rebellion of 1497)

  Causes:

  Religious grievances:

  - Demanded a reintroduction of Catholicism

  - Reinstatement of the Act of Six Articles

  - Use of Latin

  - Communion in one kind (congregation receiving bread only)

  - Prayers for the Dead

  - Mass every Sunday

  - The new practices were unfamiliar to them and they disliked the removal of images and the New Prayer Book (a 'Christmas Game'). This book was introduced on 10 June (Whitsunday), this was the final nail in the coffin at provoked rebellion at Sampford Courtenay on 11 June

  Economic factors:

  - Complained about taxes on Sheep and cloth

  - There were rumours spreading surrounding placing taxes on other animals

  - Complaints about food prices being too high

  Personality Clashes:

  William Body, commissioner and archdeacon, started investigating Church property in 1547. He investigated the Chantries which created the rumour that Church goods would be confiscated: Body was also very insensitive. In April 1548, a group in Helston set upon and killed Body
• What happened during the Western Rebellion?

  - Protestors began to assemble in Bodmin on June 6, this was led by Humphrey Arundell, who carried with him a list of articles for the march to Devon

  - The Devon Rebellion at Sampford Courtenay began on 11 June in which the rebels persuaded the priest to deliver a Catholic mass, they then joined the Cornish forces at Crediton on June 20

  - On 23 June, the Rebels began to camp at Clyst St. Mary

  - On 2 July, the rebels besieged Exeter

  - Loyalty to the Crown led to the citizens of Exeter attempting to defend their city for a total of 6 weeks

  - The rebellion ended on 16/17 August at Sampford Courtenay. However, the defeated rebels remained resilient and committed until an estimated 3,000 were killed.
• What attempts were made to suppress the Western Rebellion? What happened afterwards?

  - Somerset was acting on inadequate information and had limited resources at his disposal

  - On 29 June, he urged Lord Russell to find a peaceful settlement and wrote conciliatory response to the rebel demands. However, he only gave the cautious Russell a small army and thus failed to confront the rebels properly

  - On 8 July, Russell made his final attempt to reach a settlement but to no avail

  - By 12 July, there were supposed to be reinforcements under Lord Grey however, these were massively delayed by an uprising in Oxfordshire that was occurring simultaneously

  - Finally, on 28 July, Lord Russell began his advance against the rebels.

  - On August 3, he was assisted with the arrival of Lord Grey and his forces

  - Such confrontation with the rebels occurred at Fenny Bridges, Clyst St. Mary and Clyst Heath. Each time, they were able to push the rebels back

  - By 6 August, Russell relieved Exeter and Government reinforcements under Sir William Herbert had arrived

  - On 8 August, France had declared war on England

  - Finally, on 16 August, the forces were defeated at Sampford Courtenay, though the rebels still fought and thus Russell had to deal with rearguard action and pockets of resistance

  
  

  Aftermath:

  Robert Welsh (Vicar of the Church of St. Thomas as well as the supposed leader of the rebellion) was hanged on the gallows of his Church tower. However, this further deepened the hostility felt as the Government forces had acted illegally through executing without a trial as well as confiscating and redistributing property illegally.
• What were the origins of Kett's Rebellion?

  Context:

  - East Anglia was the most densely populated and industrialised

  - Norwich had 16,000 people living there which made it the 2nd largest city after London

  - Norwich was a major textile centre before the textile industry had collapsed

  - The area had many independent farmers who had been badly impacted by enclosure

  - There was a religious divide between Protestantism and Catholicism

  
  

  Causes:

  Enclosure:

  - Attacked fences and hedges and were known to be opposed to enclosure in wooded pasture areas

  - There had been more enclosures created over the past 50 years with an increase in money from the sale of wool and other animal products

  - Some farmers began to specialise in sheep farming and built enclosed sheep runs

  - Norfolk foldcourse

  Rents:

  - Rents were becoming too high during a time of rapid inflation

  - Rack-renting (extortionately high rent charges) used by unscrupulous landlords to pass on increased costs to the peasantry.

  Somerset's Policies:

  - Somerset had the reputation of being the 'Good Duke' which made rebels confident of the idea that they would have his sympathy and support:

  - Supported 'Commonwealth men', Christian reformers against the exploitation of the poor.

  - Appointed John Hales to lead a commission into enclosure

  - Attacked Landlords' greed

  - Passed an Act protecting the rights of copyhold tenants on his own estates

  - Created a special tax on sheep with a higher rate for flocks on enclosed land

  Protest against bad government in East Anglia:

  - Kett's rebels picked out the gentry and JPs in their county for the most vehement attack in their articles and actions

  - Appeal over the heads of the Gentry directly to the Central Government

  - Rebels ran Mousehold Heath Camp fairly and effectively (i.e. set up their own courts)

  - There was no Gentry involvement in the rebellion

  Religion and the Clergy:

  - Wanted a more competent and involved Clergy

  - Complained about the poor quality of priests

  - Wanted more education for the poor

  - Believed that the Clergy should be priests for the entire community

  - They were more inclined towards Protestantism. They demanded congregations to choose their own clergy and showed their Protestantism through their use of the New Book of Common Prayer

  Personality Clashes:

  - The rebels felt hatred for John Flowerdew, a local lawyer, given his rapacity (aggressive greed). This was showcased between the dates 6-8 July in which a crowd gathered at Wymondham to enjoy a play and drunken feast which soon led to them destroying some enclosure fences. Flowerdew then directed them to the property of Robert Kett.
• What happened during Kett's Rebellion?

  - After arriving at Kett's property around 8 July, the crowd started to destroy his hedges. However, Kett welcomed this action and assumed leadership of the movement. His motives for his were unclear: did he feel guilty about the enclosures? was he frustrated that he was just edging gentry status?

  - On 10 July, the Rebels had reached Norwich

  - Two days later, the rebels encamped on Mousehold Heath. This crowd was made up of around 16,000 people

  - Kett had produced a list of articles and sat in wait for the favourable Government response that he fully expected

  - By the evening of 22 July, the Rebels had taken over Norwich

  - On 26 Aug, Kett made the fatal decision of abandoning Mousehold Heath and take up defences in the Vale of Dussindale

  - By the next day, the rebellion had been defeated, 3,000 rebels had been slaughtered, and Kett had been arrested
• What attempts were made to suppress Kett's Rebellion? What happened afterwards?

  - The size and speed of the rebellion had paralysed the authorities of the county

  - Norwich found it hard to keep peaceful relations with Mousehold Heath

  - In fact, the Sheriff was almost arrested after attempts to disperse the rebels: the Gentry were powerless against the well-established force

  - On 21 July, York Herald arrived to offer a full pardon to all who dispersed. This was done in a conciliatory tone and also included promised such as the prohibition of landlords from acting as farmers or clothiers, the reduction of the price of wool by 1/3, and the appointment of commissioners in order to reform abuses. Much of the crowd wanted to agree to this offer, but Kett rejected it. Herald then ordered a swordbearer to arrest Kett but the mood grew ugly and Herald had to forcefully retreat

  - After the Rebels captured Norwich, Somerset sent a 1,800-man army led by William Parr, Marquis of Northampton, to negotiate and cut of the rebels' supply lines.

  - Northampton arrived 30 July and occupied Norwich. He offered another full pardon to any who dispersed but received only 20 responses. He did not wield the weight of his authority in negotiations with Kett which led to an attack by Kett who was then able to reoccupy Norwich and turn the situation into a full-scale rebellion. As a whole, this attempt to suppress the rebellion was a massive failure and led to Northampton retreating to London in disgrace following the inept handling which created the crisis for the Government and country

  - Then, there were commissions issues for the militias to be raised in all counties around Norfolk. Some of the troops from the garrisons on the border with Scotland were taken and mercenaries were employed.

  - On 23 Aug, the Earl of Warwick (later Duke of Northumberland) led a force of 12,000 men and arrived outside of Norwich.

  - There was an offer of pardon, but this was again refused. Therefore, Warwick's professional army decided to ground down the resistance of the determined rebels.

  - Following Kett's fatal decision, Warwick was able to bolster his army by an additional 1,000 foreign mercenaries. By the following day, he had been able to successfully defeat the rebels.

  
  

  Aftermath:

  - Kett was hanged on 26 Nov after being put on trial for treason

  - Northumberland resisted the bloodthirsty impulses of the Norfolk gentry and the rebels were dealt with in accordance with the letter of the law

  - There is clear evidence of only 49 executions
• In what ways were these rebellions threatening?

  - Local Gentry failed to deal with the uprisings and required the intervention of Central Government

  - Highlighted the weakness of Somerset

  - Raising troops was difficult and expensive

  - Somerset had no choice but to bring troops back from Scotland
• In what ways were these rebellions not threatening?

  - There was no link between the two rebellions

  - The rebellions were not directed at the Government or Monarchy

  - There was no attempt to march on London

  - The Government was always in control and never in danger

  - There was a lack of aristocratic and Gentry leadership