ANHB1101

• Anatomical position


  Standing erect, both feet slightly apart, flat on floor, facing forward, upper limbs by side, palms facing forward
• Prone


  Body face down
• Anterior (ventral)


  Toward the front
• Posterior (dorsal)


  Toward the back
• Superior (cranial)


  Towards head
• Supine


  Lying on your back
• Inferior (caudal)


  Towards feet
• Medial

  Towards the midline of the body
• Ipsilateral

  On the same side of the body as another structure
• Lateral


  Away from the midline
• Contralateral

  On opposite side of body from another structure
• Superficial

  Towards the surface of the skin
• Proximal

  Situated near to the point of attachment
• Deep

  Away from the surface of the skin
• Distal

  Further from the point of attachment
• Intermediate

  Between 2 structures
• Body planes

  • Sagittal planes
  • Frontal (coronal) planes
  • Horizontal (transverse) planes
  • Oblique planes
• Appendicular skeleton

  Upper and lower limb bones + bones that form girdles, primary function is movement
• Girdles

  Connect limbs to axial skeleton
• Pectoral (shoulder) girdle

  Doesn't articulate with vertebral column, held in place by muscles
• Pelvic girdle

  Consists of 3 fused bones, articulates with sacrum
• Movements of joints

  • Flexion
  • Extension
  • Hyperextension
  • Abduction
  • Adduction
  • Rotation
  • Circumduction
  • Pronation
  • Supination
  • Dorsiflexion
  • Plantar flexion
  • Inversion
  • Protraction
  • Elevation
  • Depression
• Variation

  Differential reproduction + hereditary
• Evolution by natural selection

  Caused by differential survival and reproduction among organisms differing in hereditary traits
• Genetic change in a population

  Caused by differential reproductive success, inherited variation, changing environment is selective pressures
• Population

  Group within a species of interbreeding individuals
• Evolve

  Advantageous traits, hereditary, evolution by natural selection
• Darwin's lines of evidence for theory of evolution by natural selection

  • Geographic distribution (adaptive radiation)
  • Fossils showing increased human cranial capacity
  • Geological succession
  • Struggle for existence
  • Artificial selection
• Fitness

  Survival and reproductive success
• Adaptation

  Anatomical structure, physiological process or behavioural trait that evolves from natural selection, improving organism's survival
• Evolutionary forces

  • Selection pressures
  • Mutation
  • Natural selection
  • Gene flow
  • Random genetic drift
• Speciation

  Evolutionary process where new species arise
• Variation in populations

  Leads to differential reproduction, survival and reproduction = fitness
• Small scale evolution

  Changes in gene frequency in a population between generations
• Large scale evolution

  Descent of different species from a common ancestor
• Evolutionary trends

  • Anagenesis
  • Cladogenesis
  • Intermediate forms
  • Mosaic evolution
• Evidence for evolution

  • Fossil record
  • Artificial selection/domestication
  • Comparative anatomy
  • Comparative embryology
  • Geographic distribution
• If species were created independently, there would be no fossil record
• Homology

  Common ancestry, shared structures
• Analogy

  Similar functional characteristics, evolved independently